Aardrijkskunde Werkstuk Brazilië

Inhoudstabel:

1Algemene informatie:
1.1Algemeen::
1.2Vlag:
1.3Kaarten:
1.3.1. BRAZILIË IN ZUID-AMERIKA:
1.3.2. BRAZILIË IN DE WERELD:
1.4Foto’s:
1.4.1 RIO DE JANEIRO:
1.4.2 PITTORESK DORPJE
1.5Natuur:
1.5.1. NATUURFORMATIES:
1.6Bevolking:
1.7Economie:
1.8Geschiedenis:
2Toerisme:
2.1Algemene Tekst:
2.2Foto’s, Kaarten en Afbeeldingen:
2.2.1. COPA CABANA:
2.2.2. FOS D’IGUAÇU:
2.2.3. KUSTLIJN:
2.2.4. SUNWISE COAST:
3Milieu:
A.LAND EN GRONDSTOFFEN:
B.NATURAL REGIONS
C.RIVERS AND LAKES
D.COASTLINE
E.CLIMATE
F.PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE
G.NATURAL RESOURCES
H.ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
4Economie:
NEDERLANDSTALIGE TEKST:
A.INFRASTRUCTUUR:
B.LANDBOUW
C.INDUSTRIE
D.BUITENLANDSE HANDEL
ENGELSTALIGE TEKST:
A.LABOUR
B.AGRICULTURE
C.FORESTRY AND FISHING
D.MINING
E.MANUFACTURING
F.ENERGY
G.FOREIGN TRADE
H.CURRENCY AND BANKING
I.TRANSPORTATION
J.COMMUNICATIONS
5Politiek:
A.EXECUTIVE
B.LEGISLATURE
C.JUDICIARY
D.LOCAL GOVERNMENT
E.POLITICAL PARTIES
F.SOCIAL SERVICES
G.DEFENCE
H.INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
6Samenleving:
NEDERLANDSTALIGE TEKST
A.DEMOGRAFIE
B.URBANISATIE
C.BEVOLKINGSGROEPEN
D.TAAL
E.RELIGIE
F.ONDERWIJS
G.GEZONDHEIDSZORG
H.BESTUUR
I.BRASILIA
ENGELSTALIGE TEKST
A.POPULATION
B.PRINCIPAL CITIES
C.ETHNIC GROUPS
D.LANGUAGES
E.RELIGION
F.EDUCATION
G.WAY OF LIFE
H.SOCIAL ISSUES
7Cultuur:
A.LITERATURE
B.ART AND ARCHITECTURE
C.MUSIC AND DANCE
D.THEATRE AND FILM
8Geschiedenis:
NEDERLANDSTALIGE TEKST
ENGELSTALIGE TEKST
A.DISCOVERY
B.EARLY SETTLEMENTS
C.COLONIAL BRAZIL
1)PLANTATION SOCIETY
2)DISCOVERY OF GOLD AND DIAMONDS
D.INDEPENDENCE
E.PEDRO II AND THE BRAZILIAN EMPIRE
1)A CHANGING ECONOMY
2)SLAVERY
3)END OF THE EMPIRE
F.THE FIRST REPUBLIC
G.SOCIAL CHANGE
H.THE REVOLUTION OF 1930
I.GETULIO VARGAS AND THE NEW BRAZIL
1)ESTADO NOVA
2)WORLD WAR 2
J.THE AGE OF MASS POLITICS
1)VARGAS’S SECOND PRESIDENCY
2)ECONOMIC EXPANSION
3)DESCENT INTO CHAOS
K.MILITARY RULE
1)MODERATE LEADERSHIP
2)HARD-LINERS TAKE CONTROL
L.RETURN TO CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT
1)ABE RTURA
2)ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
3)TRANSPORTATION TO DEMOCRATIE
M.THE COLLAR ADMINISTRATION
N.THE CARDOSO PRESIDENCY
O.ECONOMIC CRISIS AND REELECTION
9Besluit:

1 Algemenen Informatie:
1.1.algemeen
Officiële naam: República Federativa do Brasil
Oppervlakte: 8.511.996 km2
Inwoners: 161.087.000 (1996)
Staatsvorm: federale presidentiële republiek
Staatshoofd: Fernando Henrique Cardoso (sinds 1995)
Hoofdstad: Brasília
Officiële taal: Portugees
Officiële munt: real = 100 centavos
De Federatieve Republiek Brazilië beslaat ongeveer de helft van het Zuid-Amerikaanse continent. De grootste afstand binnen het land van het oosten naar het westen bedraagt 3700 km, gelijk aan de grootste afstand noord-zuid. In het noorden grenst het land aan Frans-Guyana, Suriname, Guyana en Venezuela; in het westen aan Colombia, Perú en Bolivia; in het zuiden aan Paraguay, Argentinië en Uruguay. De kustlengte aan de Atlantische Oceaan, in het oosten, bedraagt 7920 km.

1.2.Vlag:

1.3.Kaarten:
1.3.1.BRAZILIË IN ZUID-AMERIKA:
1.3.2.BRAZILIË IN DE WERELD:

1.4.Foto’s van grootsteden:
1.4.1.RIO DE JANEIRO:
1.4.2.PITTORESK DORPJE:

1.5.Natuur:
Brazilië, een van ‘s werelds grootste en dichts bewoonde landen ter wereld. Het is het grootste land van Zuid-Amerika. Het land beslaat bijna de helft van het continent, van ten noorden van de evenaar tot ten zuiden van de steenbokskeerkring. De grootste stad van het land is São Paulo, en de hoofdstad is Brasilia. De grootte oppervlakte en de verscheidenheid tussen de bevolking geven een grootte verscheidenheid in de Brazilië’s natuurlijke omgeving, cultuur en economie.
De natuurlijke schoonheid van de Braziliaanse natuur weerspiegeld zich in een grootte verscheidenheid aan geografische plaatsen, van de arenavorm van Shape of Sugar Loaf Mountain in de stad Rio de Janeiro, tot het magnifieke Iguaçu Falls in het verre zuiden, tot de vreemde limoensteen formaties in de staat Minas Gerais. Er bestaat een groot contrast tussen de twee grootste natuurlijke formaties van het land: de dicht beboste laag gelegen delen van het Amazone woud in het noorden en de vrij open hooglanden van het Braziliaans hoogland in het zuiden. Het land heeft vooral een tropisch klimaat, maar er zijn plaatsen met een hogere ligging boven de zeespiegel of verder weg van de evenaar die meer gematigd zijn. De begroeiing varieert van tropisch regenwoud tot naaldwouden, savanne en laag struikgewas. De bossen zijn rijk aan hout, en het land heeft een erg grootte verscheidenheid in de landbouw; producerend van tropische vruchten zoals suiker en koffie. In meer recente jaren zijn milieuactivisten meer en meer bezorgd over de toekomst van het amazonewoud, waar de menselijke activiteiten ’s werelds grootste intact regenwoud bedreigen.

1.5.1. NATUURFORMATIES:

1.6.Bevolking:
In de bevolking van Brazilië is er ook veel verscheidenheid. Deze verscheidenheid is het gevolg van de kruising tussen de oorspronkelijke indiaanse bevolking, de Portugese kolonisten, en Afrikaanse slaven, welke een etnisch en raciaal complexe maatschappij vormen. Brazilië is het enige Latijns-Amerikaan land dat gekoloniseerd werd door de Portugezen. Voordat de Portugezen er arriveerde in 1500, waren er veel indiaanse stammen die het land bevolkten. In het midden van de 16e eeuw begonnen de Portugezen Afrikaanse slaven te importeren om in de landbouw te werken. De etnische mix tussen de drie bevolkingsgroepen, samen met andere Europeanen die naar Brazilië emigreerde na 1850, heeft ook bijgedragen aan de uitzonderlijke Braziliaanse culturele vormgeving, vooral in de muziek en architectuur.
Deze culturen blijven ook bestaan onder de Afro-Braziliaanen. Portugese immigranten vanuit Europa en Azië, en geïsoleerde groepen indianen. Alhoewel, dat de Portugese culturele invloed nog steeds de sterkste blijft, met het Portugees als de hoofdtaal en de katholieke godsdienst als de belangrijkste godsdienst.

1.7.Economie:
De economische ontwikkeling van Brazilië is zeer sterk beïnvloed door een series economische cyclussen in welke verschillende grondstoffen werden ontgonnen in verschillende delen van het land. De eerste regio die werd benut was het pau brasil-woud, naar welk het land genoemd is. In het midden van de 16e eeuw begonnen de kolonisten met het cultiveren van suiker, gebruikmakend van de goede ondergrond en het tropisch klimaat langs de Noordoost kust.
In de jaren 1690 werd er goud ontdekt in wat later de staat Minas Gerais zou worden genoemd. Dit was de aanleiding tot een goudkoorts die de eerste aanzienlijke nederzetting in het binnenland teweegbracht en verschoof het economisch centrum en de bevolkte gebieden van het noordoosten naar het zuidoosten.
Het goud begon uitgedolven te worden in het laatste deel van de 18e eeuw, en er was een opening voor de volgende, maar vooral belangrijkste, economische cyclus. De koffie productie domineerde de economie vanaf ongeveer het midden van de 19e eeuw tot de jaren 1930. het was vooral belangrijk in São Paulo, en het was nauw verbonden met de bouw van een binnenland spoorwegnet. Sinds de jaren 1940 heeft de Braziliaanse samenleving drastische veranderingen vooral - door grote aanmoedigingen van overheidspolitiekers – om de industrialisatie en om meer verscheidenheid te bekomen in de economie. Brazilië is nu het meest geïndustrialiseerde land van Zuid-Amerika, met een snel moderniserende economie en een grote bevolking. Tropische gewassen en mineralen blijven de voornaamste export producten, maar gefabriceerde goederen worden steeds belangrijker. Brazilië heeft de grootste economie van Latijns-Amerika.
Alsnog behoudt Brazilië het potentieel om een economische grootmacht te worden, sociale condities afstammend van de tijd dat Brazilië een plantage gemeenschap was lijden nog steeds tot onevenheden in de verdeling van rijkdom en macht. Een kleine en rijke elite controleert nog steeds het grootste deel van het land en de grondstoffen, en een groot deel van de bevolking blijft in armoede leven, vooral in landelijke gebieden. Grote sloppenwijken begonnen zich te vormen rond de grootsteden wanneer landbouwers naar deze steden kwamen in de hoop er werkgelegenheid te inden. Tot de jaren 1960 leefde het grootste deel van de bevolking in landelijke gebieden en niet in steden of dorpen wonen, maar die situatie is nu omgekeerd. In 1999 had Brazilië een stedelijke bevolking van 136 miljoen mensen.

1.8.Geschiedenis:
Brazilië was een Portugese kolonie van 1500 tot 1822, wanneer het onafhankelijk werd. In tegenstelling tot vele Latijns-Amerikanen landen, verliep de overgang van kolonie tot onafhankelijk land in Brazilië relatief vreedzaam, wat het land spaarde van bloedverlies en economische verwoesting. Nadat het onafhankelijk werd, werd Brazilië geregeerd door een keizer. De afschaffing van de slavernij nam plaats in 1888. Het volgende jaar was er een bloedloze revolutie geleid door leger officieren die de keizer onttroonde en een federale republiek stichten. Rijke landeigenaren in de economisch machtige staten van het zuidoosten domineerde de republiek tot 1930, wanneer een andere revolutie een voorlopige regering oprichtte en leidde tot een militaire dictatuur, deze dictatuur bleef aan de macht van 1937 tot 1945, wanneer de democratie werd hersteld. Economische problemen en politieke spanningen leden tot een militaire coup in 1964. Het militaire regime bleef aan de macht tot 1985, regerend met uiterst repressieve methoden van 1968 tot 1974. Het regime begon zijn controle te verzwakken in het begin van de jaren 1980 en begon de democratie te herstellen. In het verleden decennium heeft Brazilië gewerkt om alle democratische instituten te herstellen.

Bronnen:
Foto’s en afbeeldingen:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001
 Corbis
Tekst:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001

2 Toerisme:

2.1. Algemene Tekst
Toerisme is een van Brazilië voornaamste inkomsten. De steeds verbeterende infrastructuur van Brazilië heeft het aantal toeristische activiteiten aanzienlijk vergroot. De meeste toeristen komen uit Zuid-Amerika, Europa en Noord-Amerika. De landen waar de meeste toeristen vandaan komen zijn Argentinië, Uruguay, De Verenigde Staten, Paraguay en Duitsland. De belangrijkste toeristische trekpleisters zijn de standen van Rio de Janeiro, de historische steden Bahia en Minas Gerais, en natuurlijke formaties zoals de watervallen in Iguaçu.Het jaarlijks karnaval in Rio de Janeiro trekt ook grote aantalen toeristen.
Tegenwoordig zijn de stranden van het Noord-Oosten een grote toeristische trekpleister, en het regenwoud begint milieu toeristen te trekken.
In het begin van de jaren 1990 zakte het aantal bezoekers door de grote criminaliteit in steden zoals Rio de Janeiro en Salvador. Toch zagen buitenlandse tour operators het potentieel van Brazilië en de overheid begon de industrie aan te moedigen. In 1992 begon het overheids toeristisch agentschap, Embratur, de toeristische infrastructuur te verbeteren, vooral hotels en transport, om zo hun imago in de rest van de wereld te verbeteren.
2.2. Foto’s, Kaarten en Afbeeldingen:
2.2.1. Copa Cabana:
2.2.2. Fos D’Iguaçu:
2.2.3 kustlijn:
2.2.4 Sunwise Coast:
Bronnen:
Foto’s en afbeeldingen:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001
 Corbis
Tekst:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001


3. Milieu

A. LAND EN GRONDSTOFFEN:
Brazilië beslaat een immens gebied langs de oostkust van Zuid-Amerika en ook een groot deel van het binnenland van dit continent. De factoren: grote, reliëf, klimaat, en natuurlijke grondstoffen maken van Brazilië een erg geografisch divers land. Het land wordt in 5 grote regio’s ingedeeld. Het noorden, wat het grootste deel van het amazone bekken is en dat 45% van het land beslaat, maar er leeft maar 7% van de bevolking. Het noordoosten is de oostelijke uitsteking van het land. Het was de plaats waar de eerste Europeanen kwamen settelen. Zijn half verdord binnenland, de sertão, is het grootste gebied voor veehouderij. Het grootste deel van de bevolking in deze regio, leeft in armoede.het binnenland van de zuidoostelijke regio is het demografisch en economisch centrum van het land, met de twee grootste steden van het land, São Paolo en Rio de Janeiro.Deze regio beslaat maar elf percent van het land, maar 43% van de bevolking leeft er. Het zuiden is de kleinste regio, het is niet enkel bijzonder door zijn gematigd klimaat, maar ook door het feit dat het voornamelijk gekoloniseerd werd door Europese kolonisten in de late 19e eeuw, wat de regio een meer Europese cultuur geeft dan de rest van het land.Het centrumwestelijk deel is een klein deel met een lage bevolkingsdichtheid, maar de hoofdstad Brasilia is daar wel gelegen.
Twee geografische eigenschappen domineren het landschap van Brazilië: het immense amazonewoud, welk de hele breedte van Noord-Brazilië inneemt, en een reusachtig plateau, beter bekent als de Braziliaanse Highlands, welk het grootste deel van zuid en zuidoost Brazilië beslaat. Het amazonewoud is ’s werelds grootste (tropisch) regenwoud en ook ’s werelds grootste rivier is er gelegen. De bevolking blijft schaars in deze regio vanwege de dikke begroeiing en het warme vochtige klimaat. In het zuiden en zuidoosten, het Braziliaanse hoogland, een uitgehold plateau gekenmerkt door onregelmatige bergen en doorkruist door rivieren en valleien. Dit hoogland vormt de scheiding tussen het Braziliaanse binnenland en een smalle kustvlakte die zich uitstrekt van Ceará in het noordoosten tot aan de grens met Uruguay in het zuiden.
Ondanks de grootte van Brazilië, is het klimaat toch minder gevarieerd dan men zou denken. De evenaar doorsnijdt Noord-Brazilië, juist op de hoogte van de amazone rivier.Door zijn ligging tegenover de evenaar en het weinig gevarieerde reliëf van het amazone woud, heerst er een klimaat met hoge temperaturen en betrekkelijk veel regenval. Meer naar het zuiden wordt de temperatuur meer gematigd. De staat Rio Grande do Sul in het uiterste zuiden heeft een meer gematigd klimaat, met seizoensgebonden regenpatronen die erg lijken op die van het zuiden van de verenigde staten. Er is veel regenval in Brazilië behalve in de sertão, een half woestijnachtige regio die geteisterd wordt door occasionele droogteperioden.
Brazilië bevat een schat aan minerale en plantaardige grondstoffen die nog steeds niet volledig zijn verkend. Het land bezit een van ’s werelds grootste gebieden met ijzer erts en nog vele andere gebieden met andere mineralen waaronder koper en goud. Het land beschikt over een bescheiden hoeveelheid fossiele brandstoffen, maar dit wordt teniet gedaan door het grote hydrolische potentieel van de vele rivieren. Desondanks is Brazilië toch een belangrijke leverancier van tropische gewassen, terwijl er maar een beperkt aantal vruchtbare grond is en maar een heel klein deel van het land gecultiveerd is. Er zijn veel veehouderijen, en de bossen zijn een belangrijke bron van hout, rubber en palmolie.
In het uiterste noorden van Brazilië ligt het Hoogland van Guyana, een van oost naar west lopende bergketen die een waterscheiding vormt tussen de in Venezuela stromende Orinoco en de in Brazilië stromende Amazone. De zuidelijke hellingen die de grens vormen van het stroomgebied van de Orinoco liggen in Brazilië. Het gebied is erg droog en begroeid met een savannevegetatie. Ten zuiden van het Hoogland van Guyana bevindt zich het Amazonebekken. Dit laaggelegen gebied beslaat ruim een derde van de oppervlakte van het land en is voor het grootste gedeelte bedekt met tropisch regenwoud.
Het stroomgebied van de rivier de Amazone, het grootste rivierenstelsel ter wereld, beslaat een groter gebied dan het Amazonebekken alleen. De zuidelijke zijrivieren van de Amazone ontspringen op het centraal gelegen Braziliaanse hoogland, een gebied dat zelden hoger reikt dan 1500 m en dat dezelfde kenmerken bezit als het Hoogland van Guyana. Langs de Atlantische kust in het oosten van het land ligt een 80 km brede strook laagland. Dit gebied wordt aan de westkant begrensd door een steil oprijzend kustgebergte. In dit kustgebergte, een smalle, maximaal 400 km brede gebergterand, komen de hoogste bergtoppen van Brazilië voor (Itatíaia, 2712 m). De kust, bezaaid met zandbanken en lagunes, wordt op enkele plaatsen onderbroken door de rotsachtige hellingen van het kustgebergte, die steil in zee aflopen.
In het noordoosten ligt een berggebied met hoogten tussen de 800 m en 1200 m boven zeeniveau. De rivieren de São Francisco en de Parnaíba vormen respectievelijk de zuid- en de westgrens. Het gebied is heet en droog en begroeid met doornachtige planten en cactussen.

B. NATURAL REGIONS

Much of Brazil lies between 200 and 800 m (700 and 2,600 ft) in elevation. The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country. It is an enormous block of geologically ancient rocks that rises from the Northwest towards the Southeast. As a consequence it has a steep edge near the Atlantic coast and in places drops in a single escarpment of up to 800 m (2,600 ft). The north-western parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills. The south-eastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1,200 m (3,900 ft). These ranges include the Serra da Mantiqueira, the Serra do Espinhaço, the Chapada Diamantina, and the Serra do Mar. The Serra do Mar forms a sharp edge along the coast from Rio de Janeiro south for about 1,000 km (about 600 mi) into Santa Catarina. Behind the Serra do Mar, an extensive plateau reaches through the state of São Paulo and into the southern states. The highest points in southern Brazil are the Pico da Bandeira (2,890 m/9,482 ft) and Pico do Cristal (2,798 m/9,180 ft), both in the Serra da Mantiqueira.
In the far north the Guyana Highlands cover only 2 percent of the country. These Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco river system of Venezuela to the north. The highest point in Brazil—the Pico da Neblina (3,014 m/9,888 ft)—is in the mountains of the Guyana Highlands.
The most extensive lowland is the Amazon Basin. Most of its terrain is gently undulating, rarely rising more than 150 m (490 ft) above sea level. Seasonal flooding occurs along the Amazon River and its tributaries in stretches of flat, swampy land called varzeas. A second major lowland is the Pantanal in western Mato Grosso near the border with Bolivia and Paraguay. Seasonal flooding occurs in this region along the headwaters of the Paraná and Paraguay river system. It is a significant area for ranching, but has recently come to be recognised as an important wetland environment that needs to be conserved.
The third lowland area is the coastal plain. In the Northeast it may be up to 60 km (40 mi) wide, but in some places it is very narrow, and between Rio de Janeiro and Santos it disappears entirely. This coastal plain has been a major area of settlement and economic activity since colonial times, and 12 of the country's state capitals are located along it. The plain widens in southern Rio Grande do Sul and extends into Argentina.
Swamp:

C. RIVERS AND LAKES
Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers. The most impressive river system is that of the Amazon and its tributaries, ranked the largest in the world based on the volume of water it drains. The Amazon is the world's second longest river, after the Nile in Egypt. Its major tributary, the Tocantins, joins the Amazon near its mouth. The second largest river basin in Brazil is that of the Paraná, which flows south between Argentina and Uruguay to empty into the Río de la Plata estuary. It drains much of the Southeast, South, and Centre-west. The principal river of the eastern plateau region, the São Francisco, flows north through the Highlands in the states of Minas Gerais and Bahia before turning east and entering the Atlantic. The remainder of the country is drained by a series of smaller and shorter rivers along the Atlantic seaboard.
The Amazon is navigable to ocean-going ships as far as Iquitos, in Peru, and its major tributaries are suitable for inland navigation. Parts of the São Francisco and Paraná are also navigable. However, except in the case of the Amazon, river transport is relatively unimportant in Brazil. The rivers are more important as sources of hydroelectricity, which Brazil depends on for economic development because the country is short of solid fuel.
Most of Brazil's large lakes are created by dams constructed to produce hydroelectric power or to provide water for irrigation. The largest lakes are Sobradinho, on the São Francisco; Tucuruí, on the Tocantins; Balbina, on the Amazon; and Furnas, on the Paraná. The São Francisco is also used for irrigation, and there are a number of reservoirs in the Northeast that provide irrigation and drinking water during the dry season and drought years.

D. COASTLINE
The nature of the Brazilian coastline varies considerably. In the North the mouth of the Amazon is the dominant feature, with major river channels, lowlands subject to seasonal flooding, swamps of mangrove trees, and numerous islands, of which Marajó is the largest. The coast of the Northeast is smoother, with substantial areas of beaches and dunes along the northern strip, and more varied forms—dunes, mangroves, lagoons, and hills—south of Cape São Roque. Major features of this area are the mouth of the São Francisco River and Todos os Santos Bay.
The South-eastern coast is also varied, with lagoons, marshlands, sand spits, and sandy beaches. Particularly in the states of Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo, and in much of the South, the mountains are very close to the coast, leaving a coastal plain that is narrow or non-existent. Only in Rio Grande do Sul does the plain widen again. The major natural harbours are those of Salvador, Vitória. Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Paranaguá, and Rio Grande. Portuguese settlers established their first communities along the coast, and most Brazilians still live within about 300 km (about 200 mi) of the coast.
Coastline:

E. CLIMATE
The climatic pattern is largely shaped by Brazil's tropical location and by topographic features. Most of Brazil has high annual average temperatures, above 22°C (72°F). Only in the South and in the highest elevations does the average fall below this. In the higher elevations, the seasonal variation in temperature is more marked.
A tropical wet climate characterises much of northern Brazil, with abundant rainfall and little or no dry season. Temperatures average 25°C (77°F), with more significant temperature variations between night and day than between seasons. Rainfall averages about 2,200 mm (about 90 in) a year. Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savannah climate. Eighty percent of the rain falls in summer (October through March), and there are more seasonal variations in temperature. Here rainfall averages about 1,600 mm (about 60 in) a year. In the interior Northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme. The semiarid region receives less than 800 mm (30 in) of rain, which falls in a period of two or three months. In addition to its scarcity and seasonal nature, the rain occasionally fails completely, causing serious drought conditions.
In the Southeast the tropical climate is modified by elevation, with a winter average temperature below 18°C (64°F) and an average rainfall of about 1,400 mm (about 55 in) concentrated in summer. The South has subtropical conditions, with average temperatures below 20°C (68°F) and cool winters. Rainfall averages about 1,500 mm (about 60 in), with no differences between seasons. The region is also subject to frost, which occurs on average ten days a year and may damage crops. There are occasional snowfalls in the higher areas.
In het noorden heerst een tropisch regenklimaat met een gemiddelde jaartemperatuur van 27° C en een neerslag die soms 2000 mm per jaar kan bedragen. In het noordoosten is het klimaat droger, warmer en minder gelijkmatig. De temperatuur kan hier in het droge seizoen oplopen tot 38° C. De gemiddelde jaarlijkse hoeveelheid neerslag bedraagt er 500 tot 625 mm. Met recht wordt dit gebied de 'droogteveelhoek' genoemd. Het kustgebied bezit ook een tropisch regenklimaat, omdat de stijgingsregens hier voor voldoende neerslag zorgen.
Het zuidelijkste deel van Brazilië heeft een subtropisch klimaat. Meer landinwaarts, in het midden van het land, valt tussen de 1200 en 1600 mm regen per jaar. Hier bestaat een duidelijk onderscheid tussen een droge tijd en een regentijd. De regentijd valt tijdens de zomer op het zuidelijk halfrond.

F. PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE
The plant life of Brazil depends on climate, elevation, and soil conditions. A broad distinction can be made between the forests and grasslands, but considerable variety exists within these areas. The Amazon rain forest is one of the world's largest woodland areas, covering 40 percent of the country. It has luxuriant vegetation, with tall trees and several lower layers of vegetation that include woody vines and unusual varieties of plants that do not root in the soil, but grow by attaching themselves to other plants. The east coast and the uplands in the Southeast also had a tropical forest cover, although less dense and diverse than the Amazon region; however, much of this has been cleared since 1500. In the South, the Araucária pine forest grows under subtropical conditions.
In central Brazil the rain forest gradually gives way in the south to the cerrado, an area of more open vegetation that trends from woodland to a mix of trees, shrubs and grass, and open grassland. In the semiarid Northeast vegetation is adapted to the low rainfall. It consists of low scrub, called caatinga. The trees lose their leaves in the dry season, and cacti and other plants that can survive very dry conditions are common.
The South contains open grassland known as the campos. Other small grassland areas occur in the northern Amazon region and in the mountains. The Pantanal near the border of Bolivia and Paraguay has distinct vegetation of trees, shrubs, and grasses that have adapted to the conditions of seasonal flooding. Along the coast several vegetation types exist, including salt marshes, mangrove swamps, and sand dunes.
The rich wildlife reflects the variety of natural habitats. Of an estimated 750 species of mammals in South America, 394 are found in Brazil. Larger mammals include pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes. Peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos are abundant. Deer are plentiful in the south, and monkeys of many species abound in the rain forests. The country has one of the world's most diverse populations of birds and amphibians, with 1,635 species of birds and 502 species of amphibians. There is a great variety of reptiles, including lizards, snakes, turtles, and alligators. There are estimated to be more than 1,500 species of freshwater fish in Brazil, of which more than 1,000 are found in the Amazon Basin. The number of invertebrates is enormous, calculated at more than 100,000 species, of which 70,000 are insects. However, these figures are probably underestimates, because scientific exploration is far from complete.
Despite its abundance, Brazil's animal and plant life are threatened by human activity. Removal of the vegetation cover has been a continual process since the Europeans arrived; people have cut and burned the land to clear it for farming and settlement. Concern about this process intensified as people, settlements, and industry moved into the Amazon rain forest in the 1970s. Clearing land for agriculture and felling trees for timber have reduced the habitats of wildlife. Some species are also threatened with extinction by sport and subsistence hunting and by industrial and agricultural pollution. By the 1990s hundreds of species were thought to be at risk, including the jaguar, several species of monkey, and Pantanal deer. Numerous birds, reptiles, and insects are also threatened.
Het Amazonebekken en de oostkust tot ongeveer 30° ZB zijn bedekt met tropisch regenwoud. Tropisch regenwoud bestaat uit lange, dicht bij elkaar staande bomen, die een gladde schors bezitten en voor het onderste twee derde gedeelte zonder zijtakken zijn. De bomen zijn altijd groen en hebben grote bladeren, die aan de bovenkant een dik bladerdak vormen. Typisch voor het regenwoud zijn de vele epifyten en lianen. Het aantal boomsoorten is zeer groot. Er zijn wel eens 2000 soorten geteld op 1 km2. Representatieve boomsoorten zijn de Bombax, de Bertholletia en de rubberboom.
Aan beide zijden van de droogteveelhoek bevindt zich een overgangsvegetatie tussen tropisch regenwoud en savannen. Deze drogere tropische bossen kennen relatief weinig soorten en dus veel exemplaren van één soort.
In het grootste deel van het Braziliaanse binnenland komen savannen voor (campo serrado), begroeid met wijdverspreid staande bomen en grassen. De droogteveelhoek zelf is begroeid met een doornige vegetatie (caatinga).
In het zuiden van Brazilië hebben subtropische wouden en savannen de overhand. Langs de grens met Paraguay ligt het laaggelegen moerasgebied, de Pantanal. In het uiterste zuiden beginnen de pampa's, die zich in Argentinië voortzetten. Dit is een voornamelijk met grassen begroeid gebied.
Brazilië bezit een zeer rijke en gevarieerde dierenwereld, waaronder vele endemische soorten. Hier alleen al komen ruim 1800 vogel- en 1500 vissoorten voor. Het land kent verder vele soorten apen, slangen en krokodillen. Bijzondere zoogdieren zijn de armadillo (een gordeldier) en de Zuid-Amerikaanse lamantijn (een zeekoe). Op het Latijns-Amerikaanse continent zijn geen grote planteneters (olifanten) of grote karnivoren (leeuwen). De grootste dieren zijn de jaguar en de poema.
De flora en fauna worden ernstig bedreigd door de kaalslag in het regenwoud, als gevolg van bosbouw, mijnbouw en de aanleg van de Transamazonica.
Animals


Plants

G. NATURAL RESOURCES
Land is a significant natural resource for Brazil. Although fertile soil is limited, the country produces many different types of crops and livestock. Despite its importance as an agricultural producer, only 40 percent of Brazil's land area is classified as farm land. Moreover, just 6 percent of Brazil's total land area actually produces crops; the remainder is either grassland, woodland, or uncultivated fields. Most of the east and south have been cleared for farming, but 3.31 million sq km (1.28 million sq mi) of rain forest remain in Brazil. These rain forests produce not only timber, but also a range of products such as rubber, palm oil, charcoal, and Brazil nuts.
Mineral resources are particularly important for export and as raw material for industrial use. The most important, in terms of value of output, are iron ore and gold. Copper, zinc, bauxite, manganese, and tin are also significant. Limestone, sea salt, diamonds, and phosphates are leading non-metallic minerals.

H. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Concern for the environment in Brazil has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues. The clearing of forests in the Amazon Basin to make room for agriculture and new settlements has drawn national and international attention over possible damage to the rain forest. Environmentalists are concerned that the extensive loss of rain forest vegetation, which produces large amounts of oxygen, could have a wider impact on the global environment. However, as of 1996, only 12 percent of the Amazon region was estimated to have been significantly changed.
In many areas of the country, the natural environment is threatened by development. Highway construction has opened up previously remote areas for agriculture and settlement; dams have flooded valleys and inundated wildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted the landscape. Rapid growth of urban areas has also contributed to pollution. There have been some efforts to deal with the problems of urban pollution, including cleaning up Guanabara Bay in Rio de Janeiro, the Tietê River in São Paulo, and the heavily polluted industrial town of Cubatão, near São Paulo.
Brazil has many different types of environmental conservation units throughout the country, including national and state parks, reserves, forests, and natural monuments. The first national parks were created in 1937 in an effort to provide environmental protection. The largest national parks are those of Jáu and Pico da Neblina in the state of Amazonas, with areas in excess of 2 million hectares (5 million acres). In 1973 a government department for the environment was established. There is now a wide range of protected areas in addition to the national parks; they include forest parks, ecological parks, natural monuments, biological reserves, and areas of ecological protection. Many state governments have designated protected areas, and land set aside for indigenous peoples also serves as nature reserves.
The largest single protected area is the National Forest of Rio Negro, also in Amazonas, with more than 3.7 million hectares (9.1 million acres). Designating sites does not necessarily mean that they can be securely protected, however. The government often lacks the resources or the will to stop ranchers and farmers who move into these protected areas. The country also faces conflicts in reconciling economic development and environmental conservation, and in allocating scarce investment funds to preserving the environment. However, the growth of ecological tourism may be one area in which conservation will be able to generate its own funds.

Bronnen:
Foto’s en afbeeldingen:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001
 Corbis
Tekst:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001

4Economie

NEDERLANDSTALIGE TEKST:
Brazilië gaat gebukt onder een grote buitenlandse schuld, zeer ongelijke bezitsverhoudingen en een verstrengeling van economische en politieke belangen (zowel binnen- als buitenlands). Economische Zaken is een ministerspost die maar moeilijk vervuld wordt en waar regelmatig wisselingen plaatsvinden, omdat voorstellen en begrotingen vaak afgekeurd worden door het parlement.
Het economische zwaartepunt ligt in de zuidoostelijke staten; Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro en São Paulo. Hier ontvangt 40% van de bevolking 80% van het inkomen. In 1995 werd het monetaire stelsel hervormd en een nieuwe munt ingevoerd, de real, die direct gekoppeld is aan de US-dollar. Hierdoor werd de inflatie in 1995 teruggebracht tot 25%.
In 1992 maakte de economie een negatieve groei door van 0,2%. Het bnp per hoofd van de bevolking lag rond de $ 2.350, de inflatie bedroeg 5,9% en de officiële werkloosheid lag rond de 6%. In 1995 groeide de economie met 3,5%.

A. INFRASTRUCTUUR
Het zuidoosten en noordoosten van het land is het best ontsloten. Het vervoer vindt hier voornamelijk over de weg plaats. De spoorwegen zijn van geringe betekenis.
In de rest van het land is het vervoer door de lucht of over het water het belangrijkst. Het nationale luchtverkeer behoort tot een van de meest uitgebreide ter wereld. In het Amazonegebied zijn vele kleine illegale landingsbanen voor vliegtuigen. Bombardering van de strips heeft tot nu toe niet kunnen verhinderen dat er telkens nieuwe ontstaan. De internationale luchthavens bevinden zich bij Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Recife en Porto Alegre.
Sinds 1970 wordt gewerkt aan de aanleg van de Transamazonica, een weg die van de Atlantische Oceaan, dwars door het Amazonegebied, naar Perú loopt. De Transamazonica is de hoofdweg voor de ontsluiting van het Amazonegebied. Het is de bedoeling dat zich langs deze weg economische activiteit zal gaan ontwikkelen.
De grote zeehavens zijn Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Rio Grande en Paranagua.
In 1984 werden twee waterkrachtcentrales in gebruik genomen, die samen goed zijn voor 90% van de elektriciteitsopwekking: de Itaipú-dam in de rivier de Paraná, een samenwerkingsproject tussen Brazilië en Paraguay, en de Tucuruí-dam in de rivier Tocatins in het Amazonegebied.

B. LANDBOUW
In 1992 bedroeg de landbouw slechts 10% van het BBP, 8% van de inkomsten uit de export en vond 23% van de beroepsbevolking werk in deze sector. De belangrijkste landbouwgebieden liggen in de noordoostelijke en zuidoostelijke staten. Aan de kust liggen de grote plantages en meer naar het binnenland wordt extensieve veeteelt bedreven.
In het Amazonegebied zijn landerijen van 600 km2 voor de veeteelt vrijgegeven, wat tot een nog schevere verdeling van het landeigendom leidde en bovendien een ernstige bedreiging vormde voor het milieu en de Indiaanse gemeenschappen. In 1988 werd de milieuactivist en vakbondsleider Francisco 'Chico' Mendes vermoord door een veehouder en zijn zoon, grootgrondbezitters. Chico Mendes had zich jarenlang ingezet voor het behoud van het tropische regenwoud en tegen de uitgifte van land in het Amazonegebied.
De bosbouw is het belangrijkst in Rio Grande do Sul en Paraná, waar men naaldbomen exploiteert. Het tropisch hardhout uit het Amazonegebied is van mindere betekenis; bovendien probeert de overheid de exploitatie aan banden te leggen. Een probleem bij de ontginning van het Amazonegebied is de grote variatie boomsoorten op een klein stukje land, waardoor de exploitatie van een soort de vernietiging van vele andere soorten met zich meebrengt.
De visserij staat nog in de kinderschoenen. In 1970 breidde Brazilië, in navolging van andere Latijns-Amerikaanse staten, haar territoriale wateren uit tot 200 mijl.

C. INDUSTRIE
In 1991 bedroeg het aandeel van de industrie (inclusief mijnbouw) in het BBP 35% en bood deze sector werk aan 23% van de beroepsbevolking. Brazilië is het meest geïndustrialiseerde land van Latijns Amerika.
Brazilië is zeer rijk aan mineralen. Alle delfstoffenvoorraden die na 1936 geregistreerd werden zijn eigendom van de staat; buitenlandse kapitaaldeelname is geoorloofd. In de grondwet van 1988 is bepaald dat de exploitatie van aardolie en mineralen niet toegankelijk is voor buitenlandse ondernemingen. Het grootste mijnbouwbedrijf is de staatsonderneming Companhia Vale do Rio Doce.
Brazilië is de grootste ijzerertsexporteur in de wereld. Het belangrijkste wingebied ligt in de staat Minas Gerais en sinds 1986 in Serra dos Carajos (het noordelijke Amazonegebied).
Belangrijke mineralen die geëxploiteerd worden zijn goud, industriële diamant, bergkristal, tin, mangaan, chroomerts, zirkoon, beryllium, titaan, steenkool, fosfaat, grafiet, magnesiet, wolfraam, lood, asbest, bauxiet, apatiet en zilver.
De winning van de mineralen betekent in de meeste gevallen een aantasting van het milieu en in het Amazonegebied van de bestaansmiddelen van de aldaar levende Indianenvolken. Zo wordt bijvoorbeeld voor de winning van goud kwik gebruikt. Het kwik komt daarbij in de bodem en het oppervlaktewater terecht, waarmee het een ernstige bedreiging vormt voor het natuurlijke milieu en voor de bevolking die voor water is aangewezen op het oppervlaktewater. In 1990 sloot president Sarney tijdelijk de grootste tinmijn ter wereld, i.v.m. ernstige vervuiling van de Amazone. In de eerste helft van de jaren negentig kwamen de Yanomami Indianen in de internationale belangstelling. Goudzoekers (garimpeiros vermoordden Indianen zodat zij goud konden zoeken in hun leefgebied. In 1992 was, sinds de komst van de goudzoekers, de Indiaanse Yanomami-bevolking met 10 à 15% afgenomen.
Aardolie wordt voornamelijk gewonnen in Bahia, Alagoas, Sergipe en voor de kust van Rio de Janeiro. Het staatsbedrijf Petrobrás heeft een monopolie op de winning van aardolie.
Ruim driekwart van de industriële productie vindt plaats in de zuidoostelijke staten Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais en São Paulo. Brazilië heeft zware industrie, automobielindustrie, staalindustrie, petrochemische industrie, scheepsbouw en textielindustrie. In de jaren tachtig kwam ook de vliegtuig- en wapenindustrie van de grond. In 1990 sloten Brazilië en Argentinië een akkoord, waarin ze aankondigden het militaire onderzoek op het gebied van kernwapens te zullen stoppen.

D. BUITENLANDSE HANDEL
In 1995 kwamen een gemeenschappelijke markt en douane-unie tussen Brazilië, Argentinië, Uruguay en Paraguay tot stand, de Mercosur (Mercado Común del Sur).
In 1992 bedroeg de export $ 35 miljard. De belangrijkste goederen waren ijzererts, soja, sinaasappelsap, schoenen, koffie, auto-onderdelen. De belangrijkste handelspartners waren de EU (32%), de VS (20%), overig Latijns Amerika (12%) en Japan (9%).
De import bedroeg $ 20 miljard. De belangrijkste goederen waren ruwe olie, kapitaalgoederen, chemische producten, voedsel en steenkool. De belangrijkste handelspartners waren het Midden-Oosten (12%), de VS (24%), de EU (22%), Latijns Amerika (19%) en Japan (6%).
In 1992 bedroeg de buitenlandse schuld $ 123,3 miljard.

ENGELSTALIGE TEKST:
Before 1930 the Brazilian economy was dominated by a number of agricultural and mineral products for export. The world economic depression of the 1930s encouraged the government to diversify the economy, particularly through industrialisation. The state has led much of this development, through economic plans and government participation in key sectors of public services, such as electricity, telephones, and postal services. In 1990 the government was directly involved in some of the country's largest firms, particularly in the mining, steel, oil, and chemical industries. At the same time, it also encouraged foreign investment in areas such as automobile manufacturing, engineering, and the production of electrical goods. As a result, the importance of agriculture and mining in output and trade has fallen significantly.
During the 1990s the government has reduced its role in planning the economy and in financing the development of new industries. The government also has opened up a number of state-owned companies to private investors in areas such as steel, petroleum, electricity, and telecommunications. In 1995 Brazil ranked among the World Bank's Upper Middle-Income countries, along with Mexico, South Africa, Greece, and Portugal. However, the country has faced difficulties in its development strategy. Periodic world recessions, the oil crises of 1973 and 1979, the accumulation of high foreign debt, and periods of rapid inflation have all contributed to slow the progress of development in Brazil. In 1995 Brazil's foreign debt was over $159 billion, one of the highest in the world. Inflation increased rapidly in the late 1980s, reaching 5,000 percent in 1990. Government austerity measures reduced the rate to 20 percent by 1996.

A. LABOUR
In 1999 the labour force in Brazil was 78.1 million people, of whom 35 percent were women. Unemployment was estimated at 7.8 percent in 1997, but that figure may be imprecise, due to the number of people holding part-time jobs or working in unreported employment, particularly in the cities. Urban-based employment surpasses agricultural-based employment, with much of its growth in service jobs rather than manufacturing. Expansion of the service sector has been especially important for female employment; 70 percent of women work in services, as opposed to 40 percent of men.
The government first granted legal recognition to labour organisations in 1907. In 1931 President Getúlio Vargas created a government-supervised trade union structure. Strikes were forbidden, but labour courts assessed workers' grievances. The Vargas government also instituted social legislation that was advanced for its time, regulating hours of work and establishing a minimum wage, worker training, and health care. By 1944 there were 800 unions, with over 500,000 members. During the 1950s labour became more militant, and there was pressure for a central labour organisation and moves to unionize rural labour.
Following the 1964 military coup, the government purged the leadership of unions and placed many unions under direct government control. However, continued union activism at the factory level and strikesorganisedd by workers were factors in ending the military regime. Unions re-emerged following the return of civilian rule in 1985, and central labour organisations were legalised. During the 1990s the number of unions grew into the thousands and included factory and rural workers, employers, and professionals. In addition to umbrella organisations such as the Central Union of Workers and the General Confederation of Workers, both formed in 1983, there are unions for specific industries, such as metal workers, and for sectors of the economy, such as commerce, transport, and education.

B. AGRICULTURE
Since the 1930s agriculture has declined in importance in the economy and employment. However, it still generates about one-third of export earnings. Brazil is one of the world's largest coffee, soybean, and sugar producers. Soybeans have become an important crop since the 1970s, rivalling coffee as the leading agricultural export. Sugar output has more than doubled since 1975, partly to meet the demand for cane alcohol as a substitute for gasoline. Brazil is also one of the world's largest producers of oranges, bananas, and papaws, a small tropical fruit. In terms of area cultivated, the leading crops are maize, soybeans, various other beans, rice, sugar, coffee, and manioc, or cassava. Pastoral farming is also important. There are 167 million head of cattle in Brazil; pigs, sheep, and goats are also important.
There has been considerable modernisation in agriculture, through mechanisation, the use of fertilisers and irrigation, and improvements in storage and transport. Settlements have advanced into the lands in the Centre-west and the Amazon region, via planned settlement schemes and spontaneous colonisation. This advance is partly a result of the displacement of farm workers by modernisation. Brazil has a large number of landless rural dwellers, and the pattern of land ownership is very unequal. Around half of landholdings are less than 10 hectares (25 acres) in size, and they include only 2.5 percent of the farmed area. Farms in excess of 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) account for less than 1 percent of farms, but they control 45 percent of the land.

C. FORESTRY AND FISHING
The forests are an important source of a range of products for domestic use and export, but there are some interesting contrasts in the geography of their production. About two-thirds of the output of timber products comes from natural woodland, and the balance comes from reforested areas. Almost 60 percent of logwood (for furniture and similar purposes) comes from the rain forest, especially from the state of Pará, but another 20 percent comes from plantations in the Southeast and South. About 40 percent of timber (for construction, fuel, and other purposes) comes from the Northeast, particularly Bahia, but plantations in the South and Southeast provide about 20 percent of the total. Plantations in the Northeast, South, and Southeast also supply virtually all of the wood for pulp and cellulose.
Timber products such as paper and cellulose account for about 8 percent of export earnings. Other valuable forest products are açaí fruit; babaçu nut; yerba maté, whose leaves are made into a tealike beverage; and piaçava fibre, which is used to make brooms and cords. There is also substantial production of charcoal, particularly for the iron industry. The state of Minas Gerais accounts for 60 percent of natural and plantation charcoal.
Fish provide a modest contribution to the Brazilian diet, supplying below 3 percent of protein intake. Two-thirds of the catch comes from sea fishing and the remaining one-third comes from inland waters. However, there is a marked contrast between the two systems. Commercial companies take in over 60 percent of saltwater fish, whereas private individuals catch most of the fish in the inland region. Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina are the two leading fishing states in terms of tonnage landed.

D. MINING
Minerals are a vital source of industrial raw materials and provide 10 percent of export earnings. Brazil is one of the world's largest exporters of iron ore, and an important source of gold, tin, and manganese. Iron ore comes from Minas Gerais and more recently from the Serra da Carajás in Pará. Minas Gerais is also a major producer of manganese, bauxite, nickel, zinc, gold, diamonds, and semiprecious gemstones. Carajás has gold, nickel, copper, and the metallic element molybdenum. Other significant minerals are tin in Amazonas, manganese in Amapá, and bauxite, an important ore of aluminium, in Pará. Estimated reserves of iron ore are over 39 billion tons, and there are also major reserves of manganese, bauxite, copper, and tin. A wide range of non-metallic minerals are mined, including limestone, dolomite, phosphates, and quartz.
Low-grade coal is produced in Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul, but output has fallen by more than half since 1988. A complex and high-cost process was used in Santa Catarina to produce some coking coal for use in the steel industry; this has been replaced by cheaper imported coal.
Oil was first discovered in the Northeast in 1939, but the country remained heavily dependent on imports until larger fields were discovered off the shore of Rio de Janeiro in 1974. Production, refining, and distribution of petroleum have been largely controlled by a state company, Petrobrás, established in 1953. Offshore oil fields provide about 85 percent of production and contain about 80 percent of the known reserves of 10.3 billion barrels. New oil fields were discovered in Rio de Janeiro—the nation's largest oil producer—and off the shore of Sergipe in 1996. Significant oil and natural gas fields have also been found in the Amazon region.
The Brazilian government has had a strong influence in the mining industry, controlling the production of many of its natural resources. In addition to Petrobrás and its subsidiaries, Brazil's government controls one of the world's largest iron ore producers and exporters, Vale do Rio Doce, which runs large iron mines in Minas Gerais and a mineral complex in Carajás. Both companies are now part of the government's privatisation program, which is opening the ownership of company stock to private individuals.

E. MANUFACTURING
The manufacturing sector has been a key to Brazil's economic development, with periods of rapid growth, especially in the late 1950s and the 1970s. A major objective of Brazil's industrialisation policy was to replace imported manufactures with Brazilian-made ones. As a result, industry has become highly diversified, including a range of high-technology and heavy industries. This diversification includes such manufactured items as food, drink, textiles, clothing, vehicles, and chemicals. Industrialisation has involved a mixed pattern of investment by domestic capital; by the government in areas such as steel, petrochemicals, and aircraft; and by foreign capital in the manufacture of automobiles, chemicals, and electrical goods. As a result, Brazil is one of the world's major steel producers and car manufacturers. The vehicle industry has developed since 1956, with Fiat, Ford, General Motors, and Volkswagen as the largest firms.
In terms of employment, the leading industries are food and metal processing, automobiles, chemicals, and textiles; in terms of sales, the order is chemicals, foodstuffs, metals, vehicles, and engineering. Industry is highly concentrated geographically: Forty percent of all industrial activity takes place in the state of São Paulo. The leading concentrations of industry are metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, Porto Alegre, and Belo Horizonte. The more dynamic and technologically advanced industries are also highly concentrated in these locations.

F. ENERGY
Two-thirds of Brazil's energy comes from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity. Oil and natural gas are the main non-renewable sources, followed by coal. Renewable resources are domestically produced, but Brazil also imports about 10 percent of its total energy needs, principally oil and coal.
Almost half of the hydroelectric capacity is located on major rivers in the Southeast, close to the highest concentrations of population and industry. Improved transmission technology and the construction of industries, such as metal smelting, that use large amounts of electricity have begun to tap into the considerable hydroelectric resources of the Amazon region. The biggest hydroelectric station is Itaipú, in Paraná, which Brazil shares with Paraguay. Other large stations are Tucuruí in the Amazon region, Paulo Afonso in Bahia, Itumbiara in Minas Gerais, and Ilha Solteira in São Paulo. In the South, burning coal supplies thermal power, and there are oil-fired power stations elsewhere. Brazil has taken some tentative steps in the production of nuclear power.
Wood and charcoal are still widely used in rural areas for cooking. They are also important commercial sources of energy, particularly in iron smelting and lime making. Sugarcane is also significant, both as a source of commercially distilled fuel for motor vehicles and as bagasse, the remains of crushed sugarcane stalks, which is used as fuel in sugar mills.

G. FOREIGN TRADE
Before 1980 there were persistent deficits in Brazil's balance of trade, with imports costing more than exports. In the 1980s this moved into a surplus as a result of a policy of export promotion, increased self-sufficiency in manufactured goods, and a reduced need for petroleum imports. Recent deficits partly reflect the global economic stagnation of the early 1990s. Current government policies seek to re-establish a surplus. Although Brazil traditionally has been an exporter of primary agricultural and mineral products, these now make up only 40 percent of overseas trade, with manufactured goods providing the balance.
Brazil is a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), an international body that seeks to co-ordinate monetary funds in order to expand trade, and the Inter-American Development Bank, an organisation headquartered in Washington, D.C., that promotes economic development in Latin American nations. It was a pioneer in the International Coffee Agreement of 1957, seeking to protect its interests in one of its major export crops. By establishing export quotas, the agreement between coffee-producing and coffee-consuming countries tried to stabilise prices and overcome the problems caused by fluctuations in supply and demand. In 1960 Brazil joined the Latin American Free Trade Area (which became the Latin American Integration Association in 1980), to foster trade within the continent, and since 1995 has been a member of Mercosur, a customs union with Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay.

H. CURRENCY AND BANKING

The country's recent economic difficulties resulted in frequent devaluation’s of the currency along with frequent name changes to the unit of currency, including cruzeiro, cruzeiro novo, and cruzado. The present currency is the real, which replaced the cruzeiro real in 1994, and has approximate parity with the U.S. dollar (1.81 real equal U.S.$1; 1999 average).
The Banco de Brazil is the largest commercial bank, established in 1808. In 1965 the Central Bank of Brazil became responsible for the supply of currency and the control of circulation. There are over 250 banking organisations, with more than 18,000 agencies. In addition to federal and private banks, there are a number of state banks.
The largest stock exchange is that of São Paulo, with an average daily turnover of $380 million, more than double that of Rio de Janeiro. There are seven smaller exchanges.

I. TRANSPORTATION

Sheer size, mountains, and river rapids have all been obstacles to transportation in Brazil, but the country has an expanding transport network. Roads are a key element, encouraged in the late 1950s by the implementation of a national highway plan and the creation of an automobile industry. A national highway system with Brasília at the centre links all the state capitals. There are other major interurban and interregional highways, including the Trans-Amazon Highway, an east-west artery linking isolated regions of Brazil and Peru. Dependence on motor vehicles has created serious traffic congestion in some of the major cities, especially those on sites with limited geographic access, such as Rio de Janeiro. It has also resulted in increased air pollution.

Two-thirds of the tracks on Brazil's railway system are located in the Southeast and South. Railways have suffered because of their high costs compared to the highways and because they were built as separate lines, rather than as an integrated system. Many of these systems have variations in track gauges (the distance between the two sides of the track); this makes it impossible to run trains designed for one system on the tracks of a system built for a different gauge. In 1962 a federal agency was created to oversee the state-controlled railways. These and the railways of São Paulo are the largest systems. The remaining rail operations are suburban commuter systems connecting in the major cities or specialised railways carrying minerals, timber, or tourists.
Coastal shipping has also declined in the face of highway competition, but there was some modernisation in shipping and ports in the late 1970s through the creation of export corridors to the ports of Rio Grande, Paranaguá, and Santos, and through the construction of specialised oil and ore ports. Major ports that handle more than 10 million tons of cargo include Santos, Rio de Janeiro, and Angra dos Reis; the specialised ports of Tubarão, Sepitiba, and São Sebastião in the Southeast; Paranaguá and Rio Grande in the South; and Aratu and São Luis in the Northeast.
Brazil's large size makes air transport important. Sixty-two airports, controlled by the state company Infraero, handle 97 percent of the air traffic. There are also many small airstrips that serve remote areas in the Amazon region. The airports of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro are the two largest in South America in terms of traffic handled. Varig is the principal international and domestic airline, with Vasp and Transbrasil as the leading domestic carriers. Several sectors of the transport system—including railways, metro systems, highways, ports, and airports—are being opened to private investment as part of the government's current privatisation program.

J. COMMUNICATIONS
Major newspapers are based in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. There are six major television networks, with Globo Organisations, the biggest media organisation in Latin America, controlling a major television, radio, publishing, and newspaper business. Brazilian telenovelas (soap operas) have become an important export to other South American countries and to Europe. Telecommunications is a growing sector, with rapid expansion of cellular phones and cable subscriptions.

Bronnen:
Foto’s en afbeeldingen:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001
 Corbis
Tekst:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001

5Politiek:

NEDERLANDSTALIGE TEKST
Brazil has been a republic since 1889, but democratic government was suspended during the dictatorship of Getúlio Vargas from 1937 to 1945 and during military rule under a series of presidents from 1964 until 1985. Since its founding the republic has functioned under five constitutions; the current constitution became effective in 1988. It created a republic with 26 federated states and one federal district. This constitution gave considerable powers to the legislative branch, the National Congress, to counter those of the president. It also shifted substantial responsibility and funding from the national government to the states and municipalities, which now have considerable autonomy over their internal affairs. It also provides for equality for all citizens under the law and universal suffrage.
Brazil's government has three distinct elements. A president exercises executive power; a congress, consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, controls legislative power; and the Supreme Federal Tribunal heads the judicial branch of government. In the federal capital of Brasília these powers are expressed symbolically by the placement of the President's Executive Office, the Congress, and the Supreme Court on three sides of the Square of Three Powers.
All citizens 16 years of age or older are eligible to vote by secret ballot in elections for president, congress, state governors, and state legislatures. Voting is compulsory for literate persons from 18 to 70 years of age, and optional for those who are illiterate, over 70 years of age, or aged 16 or 17.

A. EXECUTIVE
A candidate for the presidency must be a native-born Brazilian over 35 years of age. The president must be elected by an absolute majority of votes cast. If no candidate receives a majority in the first round of voting, votes proceed to a second round. The president holds office for four years. A constitutional amendment passed in 1997 allows the president to run for a second term. The president appoints his own cabinet ministers, directs foreign policy, can initiate legislation, and serves as commander in chief of the armed forces.
Members of the Council serve as advisers to the president. The Council consists of 14 members: the vice president, the minister of justice, the presidents of the two houses of Congress, the majority and minority leaders in both houses, two members elected by the Senate, two elected by the Chamber of Deputies, and two appointed by the president. A National Defence Council advises the president on matters of national sovereignty and defence.

B. LEGISLATURE
Elections for both houses of Congress take place simultaneously. Congressional candidates must be Brazilian by birth. Deputies must be over 21 years of age, and senators must be over 35. Senators are elected by majority rule to serve for eight years, with each of Brazil's 26 states and the Federal District of Brasília electing three members. Deputies are elected for four years by a system of proportional representation. There are 513 members in the Chamber of Deputies. Although the number of deputies for each state is theoretically related to its population, this relationship is not strictly observed in practice. For example, the nine least populous states—with 6.5 percent of the population—elect 72 deputies, roughly the same number as the state of São Paulo, which has 20 percent of the population. Congress is responsible for all matters within the states, the federal district, and the municipalities. These include fiscal and budgetary matters; international treaties; national, regional, and local planning; and matters dealing with the armed forces and territorial limits.

C. JUDICIARY
The principal judicial power, the Supreme Federal Tribunal, meets in Brasília and consists of 11 judges who are appointed for life. When openings occur, the president appoints new judges with the approval of the Senate. The president also appoints a Regional Federal Tribunal for each state and the Federal District. These courts consist of at least seven judges who are usually drawn from the area in which they serve. Specialised tribunals deal with labour, military, and electoral matters. The states administer their own judicial systems. Municipal judges and justices of the peace deal with minor criminal and civil matters.

D. LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Brazil is divided into 26 states and the Federal District of Brasília. Each state has a governor and legislature. The basic unit of local government is the municipio (municipality). This is similar to an American county, with an urban seat and a rural region, although the larger cities may be entirely urban municipalities. In 1994 more than two-thirds of the 4,974 municipalities had fewer than 20,000 inhabitants. On the opposite extreme, the municipality of São Paulo had over 9 million people. The number of municipalities has increased considerably; in 1950 there were only 1,889. The creation of new municipalities reflects population growth and the advance of populations into unsettled areas. Municipalities are administered by a mayor and council, who deal with matters of local taxation, planning, and basic services.

E. POLITICAL PARTIES
During the 20th century few political parties developed clear ideological positions in Brazil. Parties either represented regional or sectional interests or served as vehicles for individual political leaders. The military regime dissolved the existing parties in 1965 and created a two-party structure consisting of the government-sponsored party, the National Renovating Alliance, and an opposition, the Brazilian Democratic Movement. As the military moved to restore democracy, new parties were approved in 1979. The major parties to emerge were the Brazilian Social Democratic Party and the Democratic Workers Party on the centre-left; the centrist Brazilian Democratic Movement Party; the Liberal Front Party and the Brazilian Labour Party on the centre-right; and the right-wing Progressive Party. Most of these had roots in the parties that were dissolved in 1964. The only significant new group was the socialist Workers Party, which emerged from militant labour opposition to the military dictatorship, particularly in São Paulo.
In 1994 a coalition built around the Brazilian Social Democratic Party, the Liberal Front Party, and the Brazilian Labour Party won the presidency, the majority of seats in the Senate, and enough support in the Chamber of Deputies to control a majority of votes. However, 17 political parties held seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and congress members often serve interest groups or home states rather than their parties.

F. SOCIAL SERVICES
The Brazilian government first established a social security provision in 1911. During the 1930s dictator Getúlio Vargas implemented a welfare system that was advanced for its time, providing workers with minimum wages, unemployment insurance, and retirement benefits. During the 1960s a range of benefits covering medical assistance, sickness benefit, workmen's compensation, and pensions were brought together under the National Institute for Social Provision (INPS), which was financed by contributions from workers and employers. In 1988 the framers of the new constitution sought to provide equality of access to welfare, health care, and social assistance. They extended equal benefits for pensions and maternity rights to rural and urban workers.
Financial constraints have led to a decline in the quality of the public health service, and many of the more affluent people belong to private health programs. The federal government finances about 70 percent of the public health services, the balance coming from the states and municipalities. Considerable inequity also exists in access to medical services, favouring cities and the more populated Southeast. One-third of all hospitals are in the Southeast, and there are more than twice as many people per doctor in the impoverished Northeast state of Piauí as there are in São Paulo.
Despite these difficulties, life expectancy at birth rose from 57 years in 1960 to an average of 63 years—59 years for men and 67.7 years for women—in 2001. The infant mortality rate fell from 95 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1970 to 37 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2001. As a reflection of increasing prosperity, the principal causes of death match those found in developed countries. However, parasitic diseases, gastric ailments, and malnutrition are still threats to the impoverished and the young. Tropical diseases, which are endemic to some areas, include malaria, yellow fever, Chagas' disease, hookworm, and schistosomiasis.

G. DEFENCE
The army is the largest military force, and almost 60 percent of its members are drafted. Men between the ages of 18 and 45 must serve a compulsory tour of duty ranging from 12 to 18 months. The navy and the air force have lower proportions of draftees. There is also a paramilitary public security force and a large military reserve. With the end of military rule in 1985, good relations with neighbouring countries, and little internal political violence, the role of the armed forces has been diminishing. A new ministry of defence was created in 1999, replacing separate ministries for the army, air force, and navy; this ministry was headed by a civilian, ending the long tradition of military control of the armed forces. Defence currently absorbs 4 percent of government expenditure, falling from 4 percent under the military government.

H. INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

Brazil became an original member of the United Nations (UN) in 1945. It joined the UN's Economic Commission for Latin America and the Organisation of American States in 1948.
Bronnen:
Foto’s en afbeeldingen:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001
 Corbis
Tekst:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001

6Samenleving:

A. DEMOGRAFIE
In 1993 groeide de bevolking met 1,4% tot een aantal van 159.143.000 inwoners. Het geboortencijferjfer bedroeg 22 per 1000 inwoners en het sterftecijfer 8 per 1000 inwoners.

B. URBANISATIE
De trek naar de stad begon vorm te krijgen in 1940, toen nog slechts een kwart van de bevolking in de steden woonde. In de periode 1980-1992 groeide de stedelijke bevolking jaarlijks rond de 3,3%. In 1994 woonde 78% van de bevolking in de steden, waarvan slechts 2% in de hoofdstad Brasília.
Brasília werd in 1960 gesticht om de toenmalige hoofdstad Rio de Janeiro te ontlasten en om het binnenland van Brazilië tot ontwikkeling te brengen. In 1980 had het een inwonertal van 410.000, in 1991 was dat toegenomen tot ca. 1,6 miljoen.
De grootste stad is São Paulo, het belangrijkste industriële centrum van het land. De stad had in 1991 een inwonertal van bijna 9,5 miljoen. Rio de Janeiro, het financiële en commerciële centrum van het land, had in 1991 een inwonertal van ruim 5,3 miljoen. In 1763 verving Rio de Janeiro Salvador als de hoofdstad van het land. Dit was een gevolg van het inzakken van de noordoostelijke suikereconomie en de opkomst van de koffie- en goudeconomie in het zuidoosten. De vierde stad is Belo Horizonte, gelegen in de deelstaat Minas Gerais. De stad werd in 1890 gesticht en is dankzij de gunstige ligging in het achterland van Rio de Janeiro, tussen het mijnbouwgebied in het binnenland en het landbouwgebied langs de São Franscisco, uitgegroeid tot een belangrijk industrieel en commercieel centrum. In 1991 had de stad een inwonertal van ruim 2 miljoen.

De belangrijkste steden in het noordoosten van het land liggen aan de kust en zijn Fortaleza met ruim 1,7 miljoen inwoners, Recife met bijna 1,3 miljoen inwoners en Salvador, de derde grote stad, met een inwonertal van ca. 2 miljoen.
De steden in het zuidoosten zijn belangrijke industriële centra, de steden in het noordoosten zijn agrarische steden. Alle grote steden hebben te kampen met een snelle bevolkingsgroei en een veel geringere groei van de werkgelegenheid. In de agrarische steden was de groei van de werkgelegenheid nog geringer dan in de zuidoostelijke steden. Veel mensen werden gedwongen om in hun levensonderhoud te voorzien door werk in de informele sector. Een ander probleem vormde de huisvesting van het grootste gedeelte van de bevolking. Ook nu nog zijn velen aangewezen op de krottenwijken, de favelas. Veel kinderen leven op straat.
In 1990 bracht Amnesty International een rapport uit waarin het doodseskaders van politie en leger beschuldigde van de moord op duizenden straatkinderen in de voorliggende jaren. In 1991 ontsnapte een 16-jarig meisjes ternauwernood aan de doodseskaders. Door haar identificatie van een aantal moordenaars werd de zaak een nationale kwestie. In 1992 was het aantal moorden opgelopen tot 4 kinderen per dag.
Een ander probleem van de favelas is het drug- en alcoholgebruik. In 1995 werd het aantal aan drugs gerelateerde doden geschat op 10 per dag.

C. BEVOLKINGSGROEPEN
Iets meer dan de helft van de bevolking (53%) bestaat uit mensen met een Europese achtergrond, inz. Portugees, Spaans en Italiaans. De Indianen worden geschat op 0,1% van de totale bevolking, maar men mag aannemen dat er in het Amazonegebied nog een aantal tot nog toe onbekende volken woont. Deze volken worden meestal ontdekt wanneer in een gebied een weg wordt aangelegd (bijv. de Transamazonica) of andere economische activiteiten worden ontplooid, bijvoorbeeld mijnbouw. De meeste Indianenvolken zijn ondergebracht in reservaten, die sinds 1968 onder beheer staan van Fundação Nacional do Indio. Deze organisatie heeft tot taak de Indianen op geleidelijke wijze te integreren in de samenleving.
De mamelucos (12%), mensen met een gemengde Indiaans-Europese achtergrond, vormen de meerderheid van de bevolking in het binnenland van het noordoosten.
Het aandeel Afro-Amerikanen wordt geschat op 11% van de bevolking. Het aandeel morenos, mensen met een gemengde Afro-Amerikaans/Europese achtergrond wordt geschat op 22% van de bevolking.
Hoewel Brazilië geen uitgesproken segregatie kent tussen de verschillende bevolkingsgroepen kan in het algemeen wel gesteld worden dat hoe donkerder men is hoe minder kans men maakt om in de hogere-inkomensgroepen terecht te komen.

D. TAAL
De officiële taal is het Portugees. Deze taal is in Brazilië beïnvloed door de Latijns-Amerikaanse samenleving en de talen van de oorspronkelijke bewoners. De verschillende Indianenvolken spreken een eigen taal, zoals de Tupinambá Indianen in het noordoosten die Tupi spreken en de Indianen in het zuidoosten die bijvoorbeeld Guerani spreken.

E. RELIGIE
Brazilië kent godsdienstvrijheid. De overgrote meerderheid van de bevolking (90%) staat geregistreerd als rooms-katholiek. In 1946 werden Kerk (rooms-katholiek) en Staat gescheiden.
Het rooms-katholicisme kent in Brazilië vele mengvormen met de lokale religies, zoals de macumba. Het aantal spiritisten is bijzonder groot.

F. ONDERWIJS
Er is leerplicht voor kinderen tussen 6 en 14 jaar. Het lager en middelbaar onderwijs is gratis op de officieel erkende scholen. In 1990 volgde 88% van de kinderen in de relevante leeftijdsgroep het lager onderwijs; voor het middelbaar onderwijs lag dit op 16%. In 1990 kon 80% van de bevolking lezen en schrijven. Hoger onderwijs valt onder de verantwoordelijkheid van de federale regering. Er zijn 95 universiteiten. In 1991 besteedde de federale overheid 3,5% van haar budget aan het onderwijs.

G. GEZONDHEIDSZORG
In 1993 lag de gemiddelde levensverwachting rond de 63 jaar en bedroeg de zuigelingensterfte 62 per 1000 levendgeborenen. De gezondheidszorg concentreert zich voor driekwart in de steden van het zuidoosten. Desondanks is de gezondheidszorg in de favelas van deze steden erg slecht. De favelas zijn de dichtstbevolkte wijken in de stad, waar medische voorzieningen vrijwel geheel ontbreken. Hier wonen de armsten van de samenleving. Zij zijn gehuisvest in een hoogst ongezonde situatie zonder toegang tot schoon water of riolering. Daar komt nog bij dat de favelas vaak ontstaan op onpopulaire plekken in de stad, zoals in moerasgebieden, langs rivieren of op hellingen, die het aanleggen van bijvoorbeeld een afwateringssysteem bemoeilijken.

H. BESTUUR
De wetgevende macht ligt bij het Nationale Congres, dat bestaat uit de Camara dos Deputados (Huis van Afgevaardigden) en de Senado Federal (Federale Senaat). De Camara dos Deputados bestaat uit 487 leden die zitting nemen voor 4 jaar. De Senado Federal bestaat uit 72 leden, drie leden per staat, die zitting nemen voor 8 jaar. De uitvoerende macht ligt bij de president, die in directe en algemene verkiezingen wordt gekozen voor een ambtstermijn van 5 jaar. De president benoemt en leidt het kabinet. Sinds 1989 hebben ook analfabeten stemrecht.
In 1996 was Brazilië een van de oprichters van het Portugese Gemenebest.
De federatieve republiek Brazilië bestaat uit 26 staten en een federaal district, waarin de hoofdstad ligt. De staten zijn: Acre, Alagoas, Amapá, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceará, Espírito Santo, Goiás, Maranhão, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Pará, Paraíba, Paraná, Pernambuco, Piauí, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Rondônia, Roraima, Santa Catarina, São Paulo, Sergipe, en Tocantins.

I. BRASILIA
Hoofdstad van Brazilië (sinds 1960) en van het Federale District met 1,8 miljoen inwoners (1991).

LIGGING EN KLIMAAT
De stad is gebouwd op een oostelijke hoogvlakte (1060 m boven de zeespiegel) in het zuidoosten van Brazilië, ruim 1000 km verwijderd van de grote bevolkingscentra aan de kust. De afstand hemelsbreed naar havens in het noorden is 1500 km en naar steden in het westen van het Amazonegebied zo'n 2500 km.
Brasília ligt in een savanneklimaat; de temperatuur schommelt het hele jaar rond de 20°C. Deze gematigde temperaturen zijn te danken aan de hoge ligging. Er valt gemiddeld 1700 mm regen per jaar in de periode tussen september en mei, de overige maanden zijn vrijwel droog.

GESCHIEDENIS
Al in de 18e eeuw werd het idee geopperd om hoofdstad en regeringszetel vanuit Rio de Janeiro te verplaatsen naar het binnenland. In 1891, na het uitroepen van de republiek, werd de bouw van een nieuwe hoofdstad grondwettelijk vastgelegd. Van geen andere stad in de geschiedenis zal de plaats van vestiging zo langdurig en zorgvuldig zijn overwogen.
Dertig jaar later werd de eerste steen gelegd en weer zesendertig jaar later werd daadwerkelijk met de bouw begonnen tijdens het bewind van president Juscelino Kubitschek (1956-1961). Voor de aanleg van de nieuwe stad werd een staatsbedrijf in het leven geroepen.
Brasília moet het symbool van nationale eenheid en vooruitgang vormen en heeft als voornaamste functie de openlegging van het ontoegankelijke en dunbevolkte achterland. Door van Brasília de regeringszetel te maken en een groot aantal ministeries van Rio de Janeiro erheen over te hevelen, hoopte men een eerste aanzet te hebben gegeven voor een migratie uit de dichtbevolkte kuststeden. Met een evenwichtiger spreiding van de bevolking over het land zouden ook ook de huisvestings- en verkeersproblemen verlicht kunnen worden.
De realisatie in de jaren vijftig is buitensporig fraai en kostbaar geworden en meer te beschouwen als een monument van stedenbouwers, architecten en kunstenaars dan als resultaat van het plan om een aantal economische en sociale doeleinden voor de bevolking te verwezenlijken. In 1960 vond de officiële opening plaats; er woonden toen reeds 140.000 mensen, waaronder 15.000 regeringsambtenaren en hun gezinnen.

RUIMTELIJKE STRUCTUUR
Brasília is ontworpen door Lúcio Costa, een Braziliaanse architect, die in 1902 in Toulon werd geboren. Zijn stedelijk ontwerp werd door een internationale jury gekozen uit 26 inzendingen op een, door de regering uitgeschreven, prijsvraag. Het heeft ongeveer de vorm van een vliegtuig. De neus, tevens het laagste punt, is gericht naar het Paranoá Meer, waarvan zijarmen zich langs de vleugels uitstrekken.
Het langgerekte centrum (ongeveer 6 km lang) is de romp van het vliegtuig. Hier bevinden zich banken, kantoren, hotels en een handelscentrum. Culturele centra en een sportpark bevinden zich daar waar lange, smalle woongebieden (de vleugels, elk 5 km lang) aan het centrum grenzen. In de neus bevindt zich een driehoekig plein, het Plein van de Drie Machten. Op de hoeken staan de zetels van de uitvoerende, wetgevende en rechterlijke macht. Deze gebouwen staan, afgezien van het presidentiële Paleis van de Dageraad, het dichtst bij het meer, dat voor een deel is aangelegd om de stad van water en elektriciteit te voorzien.
Aan de staart van het vliegtuig bevinden zich enkele lichtere industrieën, een kazerne, een station en een sterrenwacht. Aan de uiteinden van de woonwijken liggen in het noorden een botanische tuin en in het zuiden een dierentuin en een kerkhof. Hier is ook het vliegveld aangelegd.
De woonwijken bestaan voor het overgrote deel uit flatgebouwen. Zowel de vorm van de stad als de wegenstructuur is geheel gericht op een zo efficiënt mogelijk gebruik van particulier vervoer. De langgerekte woongebieden zijn opgebouwd uit vierkante blokken met zijden van 250 m (superquadra).
Vier superquadras vormen de breedte van het woongedeelte, waarin zich in het midden en aan de randen brede autowegen bevinden. Iedere bewoner van een superquadra woont hierdoor nooit meer dan 250 m van deze wegen af. In de wijken is voor voldoende parkeergelegenheid gezorgd en in het centrum kruisen de wegen elkaar op drie niveaus. De superquadras zijn omgeven door groenstroken en bevatten elk een lagere school. Vier superquadras hebben samen enkele wijkvoorzieningen zoals een bioscoop, een kerk of een markt.
Een groot aantal officiële en andere gebouwen in het centrum is ontworpen door Oscar Niemeyer, een Braziliaanse architect die in 1907 in Rio de Janeiro werd geboren. Het paleis van de president en de gebouwen op het Plein van de Drie Machten zijn beroemd geworden door hun fraaie vormgeving.

STEDELIJKE ONTWIKKELING
Sinds de opening is de bevolking van het stedelijk gebied toegenomen van ca. 140.000 tot ca 1,6 miljoen inwoners. Het omringende platteland heeft zich ontwikkeld door het ontstaan van een nabijgelegen stedelijke markt. Door de uitbreiding van het wegennet is het tot voor kort geïsoleerde gebied rond Brasília ontsloten, wat ook kleinere plaatsen ten goede is gekomen.
Een van de doeleinden die de regering voor ogen heeft gestaan bij de bouw van de stad was het overhevelen van een deel van de bevolking uit de overbevolkte agglomeraties aan de kust. Kosten noch moeite zijn gespaard om van Brasília een aantrekkelijke stad te maken die alleen al door haar fraaie uiterlijk mensen zou aantrekken. Dit bleek echter ijdele hoop. De stad zelf telt nauwelijks meer inwoners dan bij de openstelling: de groei komt voor rekening van dezelfde troosteloze en onhygiënische krottenwijken die in alle kuststeden van Brazilië achter de zeer dure en vermaarde boulevards beginnen. Brasília heeft ruim 300.000 krotbewoners, immigranten uit de armere delen van het land. Zij vinden hun eventuele werk voornamelijk in de bouwsector, maar verdienen te weinig om zelf te kunnen wonen in wat ze bouwen.

ENGELSTALIGE TEKST
Brazil's population is a mixture of Native American, European, and African peoples. These groups have intermingled over the years to create a society with considerable ethnic complexity. The Native American population has been in Brazil the longest, but is now the smallest group. The Portuguese began arriving in 1500, and other European groups came after 1850. The ancestors of African Brazilians arrived as slaves, beginning about the mid-1500s and ending in 1850 when the slave trade was abolished.
Brazil's population growth was generally high during the 20th century, but it began to slow during the 1980s. Until recently the population was predominantly rural and agricultural. The past 40 years have brought rapid urbanisation, due to population growth and the migration of people from rural areas seeking employment in the expanding industries of the cities.

A. POPULATION
It is difficult to estimate the size of the Native American population at the time the Europeans arrived. There are no written records, and because of the scattered distribution of the tribes there is little substantive evidence remaining about their history. Recent calculations suggest that between 1 and 6 million Native Americans lived in Brazil prior to the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500. However, as a consequence of war, enslavement, and the introduction of European diseases, the indigenous population decreased rapidly. Estimates for 1819 suggest that the Native American population had fallen by two-thirds. In the 1990s Native Americans made up less than 1 percent of the population, living in isolated groups in remote regions of the rain forest.
Portuguese settlement was slow and small-scale. When they arrived in 1500, they established settlements along the coast and exported agricultural products to Europe. By 1600 there were no more than 30,000 European settlers in the country. The population increased during the 18th century as a result of natural increase and immigration to Brazil's gold fields, which were discovered in the late 17th century. Population also increased when the Portuguese brought slaves from Africa to Brazil to provide labour for the sugar plantations and gold mines. More than 2 million slaves arrived during the colonial period. By 1800 Brazil's total population was estimated at around 3.25 million, of which about 1 million were Europeans, 2 million were free or enslaved Africans or of mixed race, and about 250,000 were Native Americans.
During the early part of the 19th century over 1 million more slaves were imported. After the slave trade was abolished in 1850, the country's population continued to grow by natural increase and immigration. Immigrants from Italy, Portugal, Germany, and Spain started coming to Brazil after 1850. Brazil's first census, in 1872, recorded a population of 9,930,478; by 1900 the population was just over 17 million. Immigration continued to be substantial until the 1930s, with many Japanese arriving after 1908. Since then, population growth has been primarily due to natural increase. In 1950 Brazil had 51,944,000 inhabitants, and by 1980 the population had more than doubled, rising to 119,002,700. The most recent census, in 1991, recorded a population of 146,825,475. A 2001 estimate placed the population at 174,468,575. Contributory factors to these high growth rates were immigration, a high birth rate (45 percent of the population is below 20 years of age), and a death rate that has declined steadily since 1870.
In Brazil, there are considerable regional variations in population density. The most densely peopled states are Rio de Janeiro, the Federal District, and São Paulo. The least populous state is the interior region of Amazonas. About 80 percent of the population lives within 350 km (220 mi) of the coast. Until the mid-1960s there were more rural dwellers than people living in towns; since then the urban population has increased as industrialisation lures workers to the larger cities. The total number of rural dwellers has decreased since 1970. Some 81 percent of the population is now classed as urban, and a significant proportion lives in big cities. Forty-six percent of the urban population—one-third of all Brazilians—now live in cities with more than 1 million inhabitants.

B. PRINCIPAL CITIES
The largest city in Brazil is São Paulo, the main industrial centre of the nation. São Paulo is also the largest city in South America, with an estimated population in 1996 of 9.8 million. The former capital, Rio de Janeiro, ranks second. It is an important port and commercial centre. Other important cities include Salvador, the regional capital of the Northeast; Belo Horizonte, a major industrial and commercial city in Minas Gerais; and Brasília, the capital of Brazil. Each of these cities forms the core of a larger urban area. There are six other cities in Brazil with over 1 million inhabitants: Manaus, a port on the Río Negro near its confluence with the Amazon; Belém, a northern port on the mouth of the Amazon; Fortaleza and Recife, along the Northeast coast; and Curitiba and Porto Alegre in the south.

C. ETHNIC GROUPS
Brazil's population is derived from three main ethnic sources. The earliest secure date for the arrival of Native Americans in Brazil is about 10,000 years ago. Europeans arrived in 1500, and for the next three centuries European immigration was restricted to only the Portuguese. African slaves came from West Africa, the Congo, Angola, and Mozambique. Relations between these groups created a complex population pattern of mixed races, described by an often subtle terminology based on colour—for example, preto (black), escuro (dark), mulato escuro (dark brown), or mulato claro (light brown).
Racial classifications in Brazil are not as sharply defined as in other nations. The Portuguese colonists who settled Brazil had a more relaxed attitude toward interracial relationships than other Europeans and often intermarried with Africans and Native Americans. In addition, racial classification often reflects an individual's economic or social standing. For example, a Brazilian of mixed racial heritage who has done well economically may be classified as white.
The white population tends to be slightly more prevalent in urban areas while the black and mulatto population is slightly more populous in rural areas. There are also some strong regional variations. In the Northeast, where large numbers of slaves were imported during colonial times to work the sugar plantations, more than 70 percent of the people were recorded as black or mulatto in 1996. In the Southeast the population was classified as 66 percent white and 33 percent black or mulatto; in the South, which was settled mainly by European immigrants, more than 82 percent of the people were recorded as white. Brazil is widely regarded as a racially open society, with few ethnic tensions, and there is no recent history of legal discrimination. However, whites tend to occupy positions at the top of Brazil's social structure, while blacks often occupy the lower economic levels of society. Considerable room for social mobility exists among individuals with a mixed racial heritage.

D. LANGUAGES
Portuguese is the official and prevailing language of Brazil, although there are some regional variations in pronunciation and slang words. Since 1938 Portuguese has been the compulsory language for teaching in schools, but German and Italian are still spoken in homes in the South by some descendants of immigrants. English and French are the main second languages of educated Brazilians.
There are also more than 100 indigenous languages, of which the most important are Tupí, Gê, Arawak, and Carib. The Portuguese borrowed some Indian words, particularly from Tupí, which was the common language used in interactions among the Native Americans of the coastal regions, Jesuit missionaries, and early settlers. Many settlements and physical features still have Indian place-names. The settlers also borrowed some words from the vocabulary of African slaves.

E. RELIGION
Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion, with 90 percent of the population claiming at least nominal affiliation. About 6 percent are defined as members of Protestant churches. In recent years Pentecostal groups, which believe in the experience of holiness, or Christian perfection, have grown rapidly. The Spiritist movement, which believes in multiple incarnations and communication with spirits of the dead, has a small following, mainly among the urban middle classes. Traditional African beliefs, brought by slaves, have blended with Catholicism to create Afro-Brazilian religions such as Macumba, Candomblé, and Umbanda. These incorporate possession by spirits, the use of African music and dance, and the identification of West African deities with Catholic saints. Such religions are strongest in former slave areas, such as Bahia in the Northeast. Native Americans practice a wide variety of indigenous religions that vary from group to group.
The formal link between the state and the Catholic Church was severed in the late 19th century. However, the Catholic Church has continued to exert an influence on national affairs. It has traditionally been a conservative force, but in recent years a movement known as liberation theology has emerged among members of the Roman Catholic clergy. This movement teaches that Christians must work for social and economic justice for all people; it has encouraged greater church involvement in social issues, particularly those that affect the urban poor and the landless rural population.

F. EDUCATION
Primary education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 14; secondary education lasts for four years. Education is free in official primary and secondary schools. There was a major reform of education in 1971 that provided a basic education of eight years, with a common core of studies. Students may then continue on to pursue training for employment or higher education. Despite provisions in the 1988 Constitution decreeing federal expenditures for education, schooling remains underfunded and considerable variations exist in opportunity between urban and rural children, among the nation's regions, and among social class.
The proportion of children attending school falls with age. While almost all children between the ages of 7 and 14 years of age are in school, the share of secondary school-aged children enrolled falls to 62 percent. Female participation in secondary education, at 57 percent, is higher than that for males, at 42 percent. The level of adult literacy is similar for both sexes. In 1950 only half of the population over 15 years of age was literate. Despite a literacy campaign begun in 1971, the current level is just 93 percent. Literacy levels vary regionally and between rural and urban areas. Illiteracy is highest—around 40 percent—in the Northeast, which has a high proportion of rural poor. The 1991 census revealed that 19 percent of the urban population over the age of 10 were illiterate, as opposed to 46 percent of the rural population.
The University of Rio de Janeiro was Brazil's first university, created out of separate faculties in 1920. The University of São Paulo followed in 1934. In 1994 there were 127 universities. Each state (except the newest, Tocantins) has a federal university, and there are several in the states of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and Rio Grande do Sul. There are state universities in most of the states of the Northeast, Southeast, and South. The Roman Catholic Church also has some universities, and there are more than 50 private universities, many of them in São Paulo state.

G. WAY OF LIFE
Historically Brazilian society has been patriarchal, with a strong tradition of male social dominance. This has weakened with immigration, urbanisation, and the decline of the rural sector. Also, independence for women has grown under the influence of feminism and the expansion of urban employment opportunities for women. The family is still a crucial social unit, and there is some survival, even in the cities, of parentela, a kind of kinship system. This extended network involves close family and distant relatives, godparents and godchildren, and even family servants. Such linkages are generally stronger among the middle and upper classes.
There are significant differences in housing standards between social classes in Brazil. Striking contrasts exist in the cities between the luxurious mansions and apartments of the affluent and the favelas (shantytowns) of the poor. In the countryside the casa grande (big house) of the rancher or plantation owner and the simple shacks of rural labourers also illustrate the disparities. In the cities there is a social spectrum of rich, middle class, working class, and poor, but in the countryside distinctions tend to be more polarised between the rich and the poor, with few working-class or middle-class individuals.
Clothing in Brazil is not very distinctive, and formality has diminished over the past 30 years. Although high society is very fashion-conscious, only senior managers and public servants wear suits and ties to work in the cities; office workers wear casual clothes. In the countryside, jeans, shirts, and dresses of inexpensive cotton are typical. The cowboys of Rio Grande do Sul, known as gauchos, still wear distinctive clothing consisting of ponchos and baggy trousers, while the cowboys of the Northeast, known as vaqueiros, wear hats, coats, and chaps made of leather. In Bahia some women maintain traditional African clothing consisting of long, full skirts, coloured shawls, and turbanlike head scarves. Native Americans may wear few clothes and make use of beads and other decorations for personal adornment. They may also use body paint and have distinctive hairstyles. However, except on ceremonial occasions, many Native Americans who are in contact with mainstream Brazilian society have exchanged traditional dress for more contemporary clothing.
Important staples in the Brazilian diet include beans, rice, wheat, and manioc, a plant grown in tropical areas and also known as cassava. These are consumed throughout the country, although manioc is an especially important element in the diet of the poor in the Northeast. Meat, particularly beef, is also widely consumed, although only occasionally by the poor. Despite the extensive coastline and river system, levels of fish consumption are low, except along the Northeast coast and in the Amazon region. Traditional dishes include feijoada completa, a combination of pork, black beans, and rice, and churrasco, barbecued meat that is common in the South. In the Northeast there is an important African legacy in spicy dishes such as vatapá, a fish stew made with onion, tomato, coconut, and spices. Coffee is the most popular beverage, often drunk as cafezinho, a small cup of strong and very sweet black coffee. A potent alcoholic beverage, known as cachaça, is distilled from sugarcane, and light beer is widely consumed. More affluent Brazilians may drink wine produced in Rio Grande do Sul. International brand soft drinks are also popular.
Soccer is the most popular sport, played in the massive stadiums of the big cities and as recreation. The game was introduced in the 19th century and was established as a professional sport in 1933. Although there is great rivalry between local teams, there is strong popular support for the national team, which has won the World Cup, soccer's major international competition, four times. Pelé, one of the world's legendary soccer players, led the Brazilian team to three of those victories, in 1958, 1962, and 1970. Motor racing is also very popular, and Brazil has produced a number of championship winners, including Emerson Fittipaldi and Ayrton Senna. Major participant sports include swimming, tennis, sailing, and golf.
The festival of Carnival, with its spectacular street parades and vibrant music, has become one of the most potent images of Brazil. Its roots lie in the European Mardi Gras, a lively festival, which precedes the fasting and prayers of the Roman Catholic holy season of Lent. Carnival begins on the Friday before Ash Wednesday and lasts for five days. In Brazil it seems to have first occurred in Bahia in the mid-17th century and in Rio de Janeiro in the 1850s, where it was associated with street parades and elegant private balls.
Carnival did not take on its present spectacular form in Rio until the 1930s, when the dance known as the samba emerged in the favelas (shantytowns) of the city. Samba “schools” based in the favelas compete to create the most spectacular groups of extravagantly costumed dancers and original samba songs. In Rio they now parade through the sambadrome (a street stadium) before vast crowds of Brazilians and foreign tourists. The more traditional street parties and balls also continue. Carnival is celebrated throughout Brazil, but the most spectacular celebrations outside Rio take place in Salvador, Recife, and Olinda, although the nature of the events varies.

H. SOCIAL ISSUES
Brazilian society displays marked inequity between the city and the country, between regions, and between social classes. The gap between rich and poor is among the most substantial in the world. In 1995 the richest 20 percent of the population received 63 percent of the nation's income, while the poorest 50 percent earned only 12 percent. Besides access to wealth, this inequality is also reflected in access to education, medical care, and services such as water supply, sewerage, and electricity.
Despite the rich resources, rapid economic development, and the overall size of Brazil's economy, the nation has major problems with poverty, hunger, disease, and inadequate services. In the cities, overcrowding compounds these problems. Rapid urbanisation has brought people to the cities at a rate that has outpaced the growth of the job market and the urban services that they need to survive comfortably. Many of the larger cities have extensive slums. Homelessness—particularly among children and young teens whose families cannot support them—constitutes another major problem.
Despite these urban problems, poverty and lack of access to clean water, electricity, health care, and schooling may be more acute in the countryside. For example, 89 percent of urban dwellers have access to safe drinking water as opposed to just 58 percent in the countryside. Such distinctions are also evident between regions. The average head of a household in the Northeast is likely to earn only half as much as a counterpart in the Southeast. He is twice as likely to be illiterate, and his life expectancy is ten years lower. A key challenge for the government remains the inequality of opportunity among citizens.
Among other social issues, overt racism is rare, although there is some evidence of a social segregation in which the poor are more likely to be black or of mixed race. Organised crime has links to gambling and drugs, and the favelas often serve as bases for drug dealers. Street crime remains a problem in cities such as Rio de Janeiro and Salvador.

Bronnen:
Foto’s en afbeeldingen:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001
 Corbis
Tekst:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001

7Cultuur:
Cultural development in the colonial period (1500-1822) was primarily a transfer of Portuguese traditions to Brazil, particularly under the influence of the Roman Catholic Church. Architecture was the earliest art form to develop a distinctly Brazilian tradition through the blending of European and African influences. During the 18th century, wealth generated by sugar plantations and gold mines went into the building of flamboyant churches and public buildings in the regions of Bahia, Pernambuco, and Minas Gerais.
After independence in 1822, intellectuals rejected their Portuguese inheritance and sought models elsewhere. Artistic movements from throughout Europe had a significant influence on Brazilian art during the 19th century. A major milestone for Brazilian culture was the Week of Modern Art in São Paulo in 1922, an international arts festival that introduced modernist ideas in Brazil. Brazilian modernism emerged in response to artistic movements in Europe and to the social, political, and economic changes that Brazil was experiencing. After its introduction, modernism exercised a powerful influence on Brazilian literature, art, music, and painting. From 1968 to the 1980s the military regime that ruled Brazil repressed artistic expression by censoring the press, popular music and theatre, and by establishing state control over radio and television. After the end of military rule in the 1980s, the government lifted restrictions on artists and journalists.

A. LITERATURE
Brazilian colonial literature followed classical traditions, drawing from Portuguese and Catholic influences. After Brazil attained independence in 1822, artists looked for inspiration from other sources in an effort to create a uniquely Brazilian literary style. Ideas were drawn from French, English, and German literature, which introduced romanticism, a movement in the arts that emphasised a highly imaginative and subjective approach to artistic expression. There was a strong nationalistic element in these writings. A leading figure was José de Alencar, who wrote about Brazil and its history. His Iracema (1865; translated as Iracema the Honey-lips, a Legend of Brazil, 1886) portrayed a romance between an indigenous Brazilian princess and a Portuguese colonist.
The major literary figure in the late 19th century was Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis, whose works include Quincas borba (1891; Philosopher or Dog?, 1954) and Dom Casmurro (1899; translated 1953). Many of his works provide searching comments on the human condition. Another major novel of this period is Euclides da Cunha's Os sertões (1902; Rebellion in the Backlands, 1944), a powerful portrait of rebellion and massacre in the Northeast.
The modernist influence has encouraged an exploration of national character and of distinctive regional cultures, and an interest in social issues. The regional novel has been particularly strong in the Northeast, where an important group of writers have portrayed the nature of the region and the experiences of its people in the cane fields, the dry interior, and in the cities. One of Brazil's most popular novelists, Jorge Amado, wrote about his native state of Bahia in such works as Gabriela, cravo e canela (1958; Gabriela, Clove and Cinnamon, 1962), which portrays the experience of migrants from the interior of the Northeast to the cocoa port of Ilheus. Other important regional novels from the Northeast include Graciliano Ramos's Vidas secas (1938; Barren Lives, 1965) and José Lins do Rego's Menino de engenho (1932; Plantation Boy, 1966). The country's first important female novelist, Rachel de Queiroz, wrote about the challenges that women faced in Brazilian society in O quinze (1930; The Year 1915).
Among the best post-1945 writers are João Guimarães Rosa, whose Grande sertao: veradas (1956; Devil to Pay in the Backlands, 1963) provides a powerful portrait of rural life in the interior of Minas Gerais, and Clarice Lispector, best known for her short stories such as Laços de família (1960; Family Ties, 1972). Important contemporary writers include Autran Dourado, author of Ópera dos Mortos (1967; The Voice of the Dead, 1980); Darcy Ribeiro, author of Maíra (1978; translated 1985); and João Ubaldo Ribeiro, author of Sergeant Getúlio (1977; translated 1980).
In poetry, major figures in the 19th century were Antonio Gonçalves Dias and Antonio de Castro Alves, who wrote on native Brazilian themes in their works. Important poets of the modernist movement have been Manuel Bandeira, Carlos Drummond de Andrade, and Jorge de Lima. See Brazilian Literature.

B. ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Portuguese religious influences dominated colonial art. In the 19th and 20th centuries, artistic movements in Europe provided inspiration for Brazilian artists. For example, the Week of Modern Art, an international arts festival in São Paulo in 1922, introduced cubist ideas, which focused on abstract forms rather than lifelike representation of objects. Important modern artists Anita Malfatti and Tarsila do Amaral were both early pioneers in Brazilian modern art. Cándido Portinari depicted people and landscapes of his homeland in a patriotic manner, and Lasar Segall helped introduce expressionist paintings to Brazil with an exhibit in Rio de Janeiro in 1913.
Colonial architecture was strongly influenced by the Jesuit priests and the Roman Catholic Church. In the 20th century, modern artistic movements provided inspiration for architecture as they had for art, particularly after the 1936 visit of Swiss French architect Le Corbusier, who collaborated with Oscar Niemeyer and Lúcio Costa on the Ministry of Education building in Rio de Janeiro. Niemeyer and Costa have been key figures in the high reputation of Brazil's modern architecture. Their masterpiece is the capital city of Brasília (constructed in the 1950s), which Costa planned and for which Niemeyer designed many of the public buildings. Other important figures include Jorge Moreira Machado and Afonso Reidy. Buildings designed by these architects tend to be light, graceful, and airy, incorporating features appropriate to tropical heat and strong sunlight. They also frequently combine the skills of the architect with those of sculptors, painters, and landscape gardeners such as Roberto Burle Marx, who designed many parks and gardens in Brazil and overseas.
One of Brazil's most famous sculptors and architects is the colonial artist known as Aleijadinho, who worked in a baroque style on the churches of colonial Minas Gerais. In the modern period, more abstract styles have dominated. Important figures such as sculptors Bruno Giorgi and Maria Martins contributed works to the design of Brasília.
Photography was introduced in Brazil in 1840, and early photographs provide an important record of society and landscape. In recent years photographer Sebastião Salgado has created powerful images of Brazilian poverty.
There is a strong folk art tradition in Brazil, deriving from and often blending together the legacies of the Native Americans, Africans, and Portuguese. Indigenous art traditionally focused on three forms: pottery, weaving, and body art, which involved painting designs on the skin. Goods that have utilitarian functions have come to be appreciated for their aesthetic qualities. Such items include pottery, leatherwork, basketry, lace, and embroidery.

C. MUSIC AND DANCE
The National Conservatory was established in 1841, and classical music drew upon European and ethnic traditions. There is a strong nationalist element in the work of composer Antônio Carlos Gomes. Brazil's leading classical composer, Heitor Villa-Lobos, blended European traditions and melodies with those of Brazil's African and Native American populations. This blend is perhaps best heard in his Bachianas Brasileiras (1930-1945), a series of nine suites.
The best-known form of popular music is samba, which grew from the rhythm and vocal styles of the Native Americans, Portuguese, and Africans. Samba has come to be particularly associated with the spectacular dance and music competitions that take place each year in Rio de Janeiro during Brazil's Carnival celebration. Although samba, as a dance form, is best seen during Carnival, there are other dances of African origin, such as the ritualized fighting of capoeira, which originated among African slaves. Bumba-meu-boi is a dance that uses drama, dance, instrumental music, and song to recount the mythical tale of the death and resurrection of an ox.
In the 1950s and 1960s bossa nova emerged from a blending of Brazilian popular music with American jazz. Key composers of bossa nova were João Gilberto, Antonio Carlos Jobim, and Vinicius de Morães. In the mid-1960s the addition of electric guitars and elements of rock music resulted in the creation of música popular brasileira (MPB), associated with musician Chico Buarque and others. MPB focused on urban protest against the military regime that ruled Brazil from 1964 to 1985. In the late 1960s tropicalismo drew upon a range of musical traditions, with Maria Bethânia and Caetano Veloso as leading performers. It combined Brazilian folk traditions with rock and roll and popular music styles. Lambada, originating in the Amazon region in the 1970s, is a sensual dance based on Afro-Brazilian rhythms. There are also elements of regional popular music, such as sertanejo in the South and Center-west, which resembles American country music, with simple tunes and themes of love, nostalgia, and hardship.

D. THEATRE AND FILM
Theatre was not an important art form in Brazil until the 1940s, when playwrights such as Nelson Rodrigues and Alfredo Dias Gomes began to contribute more original works. In the 1950s the theatre became more experimental and socially concerned, and the Teatro de Arena in São Paulo became an important place of innovation and a center of social protest against the military regime in the 1960s.
Interest in cinema has a long history, but motion-picture production was constrained by the limited market for films in Portuguese. However, the cinema nôvo (new cinema) movement of the mid-1950s began to attract international attention through films such as Vidas Secas (Barren Lives, 1963), a dramatisation of the novel by Graciliano Ramos. A major figure was Glauber Rocha, who made several striking films on Brazilian themes, most notably Deus e o diabo na terra do sol (Black God, White Devil, 1964). More recently, Bruno Barreto has produced films based on several novels by Brazilian writer Jorge Amado. In recent years, rising costs and competition from television have posed challenges for the film industry.

Bronnen:
Foto’s en afbeeldingen:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001
 Corbis
Tekst:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001

8Geschiedenis:

NEDERLANDSTALIGE TEKST
In 1996 werden in steengrotten in het noordelijk regenwoud, bij Monte Alegre, rotstekeningen gevonden die ca. 11.000 jaar oud waren. Het zijn de oudste tekenen van beschaving en bewoning van Zuid-Amerika.
De Portugees Pedro Cabral ontdekte op 22 april 1500 Brazilië, toen hij op weg was naar India. Op grond van het verdrag van Tordesillas (1494) viel het land toe aan Portugal, dat met de kolonisatie van het gebied vooralsnog weinig haast maakte. Pas toen de levensstandaard in Europa steeg en de vraag naar suiker toenam, begon in 1532 onder Alfonso de Souza een systematische kolonisatie van noordoost-Brazilië. Grote stukken land werden aan 'edelen' uitgedeeld, die er suikerplantages vestigden. Feodale aspecten in de Braziliaanse maatschappelijke ontwikkeling dateren van deze tijd.
De suikerplantages breidden zich sterk uit en Brazilië was al snel de belangrijkste producent van suiker ter wereld. Het tekort aan arbeidskrachten werd ondervangen door de invoer van mensen uit Afrika, die op de plantages als slaaf tewerk werden gesteld (Afro-Amerikanen). Het noordoosten werd rijk en dichtbevolkt. In 1549 werd Salvador de koloniale hoofdstad.
In 1580 viel Portugal in Spaanse handen en kreeg men in Brazilië zelf te maken met Nederlandse controle over een belangrijk deel van het noordoosten rond Recife en Olinda (1630-1654).
In het midden van de 17e eeuw kwam aan de grootste bloeiperiode van de suikercultuur een einde. Engelsen, Fransen en Nederlanders legden in het Caribisch gebied nieuwe plantages aan. Niet alleen werd hierdoor de Braziliaanse monopoliepositie aangetast, maar door het vergrote suikeraanbod daalde ook de prijs. In het begin van de 18e eeuw was de noordoostelijke economie al zo ver gestagneerd dat landbouwproductie gericht op zelfvoorziening op vrij grote schaal de exportlandbouw had verdrongen. Het economisch zwaartepunt verplaatste zich naar het zuiden, waar in 1695 in Minas Gerais en in 1719 in Mato Grosso goud werd ontdekt. Velen uit het noordoosten, maar ook gelukzoekers uit het buitenland, vertrokken naar het zuiden, waar enkele steden tot grote bloei kwamen. In het midden van de 18e eeuw was Brazilië de belangrijkste goudproducent van de wereld.
Rio de Janeiro verdrong in 1763 Salvador als hoofdstad, overigens in een tijd waarin de goudvindplaatsen langzamerhand uitgeput raakten. Het verval zou wellicht aanzienlijk minder snel zijn gegaan als de Portugezen de industriële ontwikkeling niet hadden tegengehouden en niet het grootste deel van de goudopbrengst naar Portugal zelf hadden overgemaakt. Het einde van de goudperiode (rond 1800) bracht een aantal negatieve aspecten van de Portugese overheersing nog schrijnender tot uiting, zoals beperking van de Braziliaanse industriële export, verbod op zoutwinning ter bescherming van de eigen Portugese winning, extra belastingen, die alleen Portugal zelf ten goede kwamen, en een niet ontwikkeld transportsysteem. Ongeveer 30% van de Brazilianen bestond in die tijd uit Afro-Amerikanen. Als klap op de vuurpijl volgde in 1785 het algehele verbod op industriële activiteit.
Na 1800 veranderden de verhoudingen. Napoleon verdreef de Portugese koninklijke familie, die in 1808 naar Rio de Janeiro uitweek. De verhevigde oppositie tegen de economische politiek en het feit dat Brazilië nu het centrum van het Portugese Rijk was geworden, leidden tot een industriële heropleving na 1808. De handel werd ook weer vrijer. In 1822 werd Brazilië formeel onafhankelijk. Dom Pedro I, zoon van de oude Portugese koning, werd keizer, maar riep door zijn autoritaire optreden veel weerstanden op. Veel verzet ontstond ook tegen zijn bevoordeling van Groot-Brittannië op de Braziliaanse markt, waardoor opnieuw de eigen industrie benadeeld werd. In 1831 werd hij gedwongen af te treden en na een regentschap in 1840 opgevolgd door zijn zoon, Dom Pedro II, die een protectionistisch beleid ten gunste van de Braziliaanse economie voerde. Vanaf het midden van de 19e eeuw werden spoorlijnen aangelegd. Koffie, katoen en rubber kwamen op als exportproducten en er was een industriële opleving. De uitbreiding van de koffieplantages in het achterland van Rio de Janeiro bracht opnieuw de slavernij naar voren als mogelijke oplossing voor het tekort aan arbeidskrachten. Onder druk van het veranderde internationale klimaat en nieuwe economische ideeën werd in 1888 de slavernij officieel afgeschaft. Van deze periode dateert de immigratie van Europeanen (vooral Duitsers) naar Brazilië. Het is ook de tijd van het verzet van niet schadeloosgestelde grootgrondbezitters tegen Dom Pedro II. Zijn harde optreden tegen opstandige bisschoppen kostte hem de steun van de Kerk. Het leger, dat sinds de oorlog met Paraguay (1865-1870) een belangrijke factor in de Braziliaanse samenleving was geworden, werd verboden zich met de politiek te bemoeien. In 1889 zette generaal Da Fonseca Dom Pedro II af en riep de republiek uit, onder zijn presidentschap.
Het verdwijnen van het koningschap maakte de weg vrij voor de alleenheerschappij van legerofficieren, grootgrondbezitters en zakenlieden. In 1894 kreeg het land in de persoon van Prudente de Morais e Barros (1894-1898) de eerste burgerlijke president. Aanvankelijk ging het tamelijk goed met de exporteconomie, maar een scherpe daling van de koffieprijs rond 1900 leidde tot een economische crisis, die tot aan de Tweede Wereldoorlog zou duren en die alleen onderbroken zou worden door een korte bloeiperiode ten tijde van de Eerste Wereldoorlog, toen São Paulo een sterke industriële bloei doormaakte. Te hoog opgelopen leningen in de jaren twintig en de economische crisis van 1929 brachten het land aan de rand van de afgrond. In 1930 bracht een door het leger georganiseerde volksopstand Getúlio Vargas aan de macht. Vargas identificeerde zich meer dan zijn voorgangers met het middelkleine landbezit. Hij subsidieerde de eigen (koffie)export, beschermde de Braziliaanse industrie en nam andere maatregelen die hem de naam gaven van grondlegger van het moderne Brazilië. Onder zijn bewind kwam ook een eind aan de grote autonomie van de deelstaten. Vargas steunde voor een deel op de industriearbeiders en zette zich o.a. in voor betere werkomstandigheden. Voor de landarbeiders werd weinig tot niets gedaan en vakbonden werden onderdrukt. Als populist maakte hij verder - zij het nu op twijfelachtige wijze - naam toen hij in 1937, omdat hij voor een derde termijn als president grondwettelijk niet meer in aanmerking kwam, een coup pleegde en als dictator door regeerde. Vargas trad onder druk van de VS in 1945 af, maar kwam in 1951 opnieuw aan de macht. Tussen 1951 en 1954 richtte hij enkele belangrijke staatsondernemingen op, zoals de oliemaatschappij Petrobrás en het elektriciteitsbedrijf Electrobrás. Tegen de grote naoorlogse economische problemen richtte zijn beleid overigens weinig uit. Het leger dwong hem in 1954 tot aftreden, onder druk van behoudende tegenstanders. Zijn opvolgers in de periode 1954-1956 waren aanzienlijk conservatiever. Uitzondering hierop was Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira (1956-1960). In het begin van zijn ambtsperiode kende het land een economische opleving, gestimuleerd door het aangaan van omvangrijke buitenlandse leningen. Buitenlandse bedrijven werden aangemoedigd in Brazilië te investeren, met enig succes. De keerzijde van de opleving was een hoge inflatie en een snel naderend financieel bankroet. Kubitscheks opvolger, Jânio da Silva Quadros (1960-1961), verraste zijn voornamelijk conservatieve kiezers door het aangaan van economische betrekkingen met het Oostblok. Dat verhinderde niet dat het land, ook onder zijn opvolger João Belchior Marques Goulart (1961-1964), in een algemene economische crisis belandde. Het toenemende politieke verzet gaf het leger aanleiding zich openlijk met de politiek te bemoeien en in 1964 begon een periode van militaire dictatuur.
De economische groeipolitiek van de militairen had in die zin succes dat tot 1973 groeicijfers van boven de 10% per jaar werden gehaald. Het grootste deel van de Braziliaanse bevolking had echter geen deel in de rijkdom en leefde onder het bestaansminimum. De noodzakelijke landhervormingen werden niet doorgevoerd, aan de hoge inflatie kwam geen einde en de buitenlandse schuld steeg tot recordhoogte. De invloed van de staat nam toe, evenals die van grote buitenlandse ondernemingen.
Veel burgerpolitici en intellectuelen vluchtten naar het buitenland. President Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco (1964-1967) werd opgevolgd door Arthur da Costa e Silva (1967-1969), die de presidentiële macht verder uitbreidde. Het parlement werd ontbonden, de grondwet op belangrijke punten buiten werking gesteld, politieke partijen opgeheven en (in 1968) vervangen door een officieel tweepartijenstelsel. Eerst onder Ernesto Geisel (1974-1979) werd een verzachting van de politieke situatie doorgevoerd, onder druk van de toegenomen internationale kritiek en de groeiende binnenlandse oppositie. Het leger verhinderde een vergaande democratisering, maar ging wel akkoord met een formele inperking van de presidentiële bevoegdheden, uitbreiding van de parlementaire invloed en vrijlating van de meeste politieke gevangenen.
Bij de verkiezingen in 1982, onder generaal Figueiredo, behaalde de oppositiepartij, Partido do Movimento Democrático Brasileiro, 200 zetels. In 1985 werd José Sarney tot president gekozen, waarmee officieel een einde kwam aan 21 jaar militair bewind. In het eerste jaar van zijn aantreden ondervond hij ruime steun voor zijn economische hervormingsprogramma. In de latere jaren groeide de oppositie evenals de economische recessie. In 1987 kondigde Sarney een tijdelijk moratorium af op de schuldbetalingen. Vanaf dat moment vonden veel besprekingen plaats met de verschillende schuldeisers over een herstructurering van de schulden. In 1987 besloot de Grondwetgevende Vergadering, het voormalige congres, een nieuwe grondwet op te stellen, waarin onder andere de macht van de president aan banden werd gelegd. De leden van de Grondwetgevende vergadering waren verdeeld over de inhoud van de nieuwe grondwet. De grootgrondbezitters hielden landhervormingen en de vorming van een parlementaire democratie tegen. In 1988 werd een grondwet aangenomen die de bestaande eigendomsverhoudingen intact hield en de macht van de president slechts ten dele beperkte. Bij de presidentsverkiezingen van 1989 kon de bevolking voor het eerst sinds 1960 middels directe verkiezingen een president kiezen. Winnaar werd de rechtse populist Fernando Collar de Melo. Collar werd gedurende zijn ambtstermijn geconfronteerd met corruptieschandalen rond zijn persoon en omgeving, waardoor hij in 1992 gedwongen werd af te treden. Tijdens zijn regering gelukte het hem niet de economie te hervormen, de inflatie te beteugelen, landhervormingen of de privatisering van staatsbedrijven door te voeren. De economische recessie was nog schrijnender geworden. Collar moest tweemaal een vervanger zoeken voor de ministersposten van Economische Zaken en Financiën. In 1992 werd Itamar Augusto Cantiero Franco volwaardig plaatsvervanger van president Collar, maar ook hij was niet in staat om de steun van de meerderheid te krijgen voor het door zijn regering opgestelde economische programma.
De presidentsverkiezingen van 1995 werden gewonnen door Fernando Henrique Cardoso van de Partido Social Democracia Brasileira. Zijn kandidatuur werd ondersteund door een coalitie van rechtse en centrumpartijen. Het herstelprogramma 'Plano Real', ontworpen door Cardoso toen hij in 1994 de post van Financiën bekleedde, werd aangenomen door het parlement. Het voorzag onder andere in de invoering van een nieuwe munteenheid die gekoppeld was aan de dollar, de real.

ENGELSTALIGE TEKST
Brazil's history can be divided into two major parts: the colonial period from the arrival of the first Portuguese explorers in 1500 until independence in 1822, and the national period since independence from Portugal. During the colonial period Brazil became the first great plantation slave society in the Americas, producing sugar and later coffee on large agricultural estates worked by slaves. During the 1700s Brazil experienced the first major gold rush in the Americas after explorers discovered gold on frontier territory inland from the coast. After Brazil broke away from Portuguese rule in the 1820s, members of the Portuguese royal family ruled as emperors until 1889, in the only sustained monarchy in the western hemisphere. Since 1889 Brazil has been a republic, experiencing two periods of dictatorship: from 1937 to 1945 and from 1964 to 1985. The interaction of Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans in Brazil has produced one of the most racially mixed societies in the world, and one with enormous economic and social inequalities.

A. DISCOVERY
Most of the hundreds of indigenous peoples who inhabited eastern South America prior to the arrival of the Europeans were members of the Tupí-Guaraní cultures. These Native American groups spoke variations of the Tupian language and inhabited an area along the eastern coast of South America south of the Amazon River and inland to the foothills of the Andes. They generally lived by hunting and gathering. Those who did farm used simple slash-and-burn techniques to clear the land. Their main crop was manioc, also known as cassava. After a few years the soil would be exhausted and the farming groups would move on. These people had no metal tools, no written language, no beasts of burden, and no knowledge of the wheel. They worshiped spirits and relied on religious figures known as shamans for healing, divination of future events, and connection to the world of spirits. Accurate numbers for the size of the indigenous population are difficult to determine, but best estimates place the native population of eastern South America in 1500 at somewhere between 1 and 6 million.
The Portuguese claim to Brazil stemmed in part from the Treaty of Tordesillas, which Portugal and Spain had signed in 1494 with the pope's blessing. Both nations had undertaken voyages in search of a sea route to the spice-rich regions of the Indian Ocean and claimed land based on these voyages. In 1492 Italian Spanish explorer Christopher Columbus made his historic voyage and claimed land in the West Indies for Spain. Spain sought international recognition of its right to the newly discovered western lands, and the Treaty of Tordesillas was the result. The treaty drew an imaginary line far out into the western Atlantic. With a few exceptions, the Portuguese laid claim to conquered territories to the east of the line, along the African coast; Spain laid claim to territories to the west of the line. Much of Brazil lies to the east of the Tordesillas line and thus fell under Portugal's jurisdiction.
The Portuguese, however, did not arrive in Brazil until 1500. They landed on the coast of South America by mistake while seeking a route to the Indian Ocean. In 1498 Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama had made the first successful voyage around the southern tip of Africa to India and back. The Portuguese quickly outfitted a second expedition, led by Pedro Álvares Cabral, a young nobleman. Cabral's fleet strayed too far west in the South Atlantic as it moved around Africa. They spotted land on April 22, 1500. Unaware that he had stumbled on a huge continent, Cabral named his discovery Terra da Vera Cruz (Portuguese for “Island of the True Cross”).

B. EARLY SETTLEMENTS
As they had done along the African coast, the Portuguese established trading posts, which they called feitorias (factories), along more than 1,600 km (more than 1,000 mi) of the South American coastline. Portuguese traders visited the factories with some frequency, primarily to load cargoes of a hard wood that produced a red dye known by its Latin name, brasile. Eventually, the land became identified on maps with the brazilwood it produced, and the Portuguese began to call their small colony Brazil.
At the same time, France was attempting to establish trading relationships along the coast. In 1530, to counter this French threat, the Portuguese crown sent an expedition to Brazil led by the nobleman Martim Afonso de Sousa. He founded the settlement of São Vicente (near present-day Santos) and introduced sugarcane cultivation, cattle raising, and an administrative presence in the colony. The king attempted to divide up 4,000 km (2,500 mi) of coastline into a dozen captaincies, giving control of these new territories to nobles. In exchange for developing and protecting their captaincies, these nobles, known as donatários, received control over lands that were sometimes larger than Portugal itself. Many of the donatários never even saw their land grants. Four of the captaincies were not settled, and just two—São Vicente in the south and Pernambuco in the north—experienced any initial success. The captaincies also failed to discourage the French, who continued raids against Portuguese shipping in the area.
In 1549 the king again attempted to establish centralized authority in the colony and sent out a larger and more ambitious expedition of some 1,200 colonists, soldiers, priests, and royal officials led by Tomé de Sousa. He founded a permanent colonial capital on the coast of the captaincy of Bahia, calling the city Salvador (Portuguese for “the Savior”). Within two decades the sugarcane that the colonists had brought from the Portuguese islands off the coast of West Africa spread in the rich soils of the countryside around Salvador. As the demand for agricultural labour increased, conflict between Native Americans and colonists intensified. Plantation owners tried a number of methods to coerce the indigenous people to work in the sugar fields: forcing them into slavery, attempting to turn them into peasants who were obligated to work on the agricultural estates, and offering wages in exchange for labour. None of these attempts succeeded on a large scale.
The Native Americans found a staunch ally against the pressure from the colonists in the Roman Catholic Church, or more precisely, in the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). Jesuit priests had arrived with Tomé de Sousa in 1549, and they founded the Roman Catholic Church in Brazil. A new and very effective religious order, the Jesuits created the first schools in Brazil and sought to convert the Native Americans to Christianity. A group of priests, led by Manoel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta, eventually created a system of aldeias (villages) to Christianize the Native Americans. By the 1560s and 1570s the Jesuits had gathered thousands of indigenous people in dozens of aldeias.
In the 1560s disease, most likely smallpox, swept through the Native American villages, and large numbers of the indigenous people died. Given the Native Americans' resistance to plantation work and their susceptibility to epidemics introduced by European settlers, the Portuguese colonists began to use African slave labour to satisfy their rapidly increasing labour needs.

C. COLONIAL BRAZIL
With the establishment of early settlements along the coast and the successful introduction of sugar cultivation, Brazil began developing an economy based on plantation agriculture and powered by slave labour. The introduction of large numbers of African slaves transformed areas of Brazil into multiracial societies where Native American, European, and African peoples mingled. Following the discovery of gold in the captaincy of Minas Gerais (General Mines) in the late 1600s, Brazil expanded its borders into the interior of the continent. Gold made Brazil the most economically important region of the Portuguese Empire and caused a major shift in the concentration of Brazil's population. Settlements in south-eastern Brazil, nearer the gold regions, grew at a rapid pace. Eventually the wealth and influence of the south-eastern region eclipsed that of the older settlements of north-eastern Brazil.

1. PLANTATION SOCIETY
The Portuguese initiated the Atlantic slave trade in the 1440s, bringing black Africans back to Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. Slavery dated from ancient times in both Europe and Africa, but the enslavement of black Africans by Europeans was new. For three centuries (roughly 1550 to 1850) Europeans transported their human cargo from Africa to the Americas. More than 10 million Africans survived this forced passage, with about 3 to 4 million going to Brazil alone.
Along the coastal zones of the Northeast, especially in the captaincies of Bahia and Pernambuco, the slave trade created a black majority. (Some 80 percent of the people of the north-eastern coast today are descendants of Africans.) As the decades passed, the mulatto population of mixed European and African ancestry grew increasingly larger. The mixing of Native Americans and Portuguese produced the racially mixed mamelucos. The mulattoes and mamelucos formed racial, social, and cultural groups midway between the dominant white elite and the African slaves and indigenous population at the bottom of the social structure.
Probably three-fourths of the 50,000 Portuguese colonists lived near Salvador and Olinda, the capital of Pernambuco. For every white colonist in the early 17th century, there may have been as many as three African slaves. There was probably a total of several hundred thousand Native Americans in the interior. By the early 17th century, the sugar boom had created one of the fundamental patterns that would long plague Brazil: A small white elite controlled vast landholdings and dominated an economic and political system with a non-white majority.
In 1580, after the death of King Sebastian of Portugal, who left no heir, King Philip II of Spain placed himself on the Portuguese throne through bribery and the threat of war. The merging of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchies lasted until 1640 when the Portuguese regained their independence. The union created the second largest empire in world history, to be eclipsed later only by the British Empire. It included control of most of the Americas, the Philippines, the Portuguese trading empire in Asia and Africa, and Spanish possessions across Europe—The Netherlands, Sicily, and southern Italy.
Unfortunately for the Portuguese, the forced coalition with Spain drew them into bitter European power struggles between the Spanish and the Dutch. Involvement in this struggle was very costly for the Portuguese. By 1650 the Dutch had taken the Asian spice trade from the Portuguese and had gained control of the Indian Ocean. In Africa, Dutch attackers captured Portuguese territory in Angola as well as Portugal's West African slave ports and held them for decades. In the 1620s the Dutch attacked Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, and Recife. After a bloody struggle they were driven back. A second incursion in 1630 left the Dutch in control of Recife and Olinda, which the Dutch occupied until the 1650s. After their expulsion, the Dutch (followed by the English, French, and Spanish) set up their own sugar plantations in the islands of the Caribbean. Although sugarcane remained Brazil's major crop, the new competition sent the colony's economy into decades of decline.

2. DISCOVERY OF GOLD AND DIAMONDS
In the late 17th century, Brazilian explorers known as bandeirantes began to find gold in the mountain streams to the north of Rio de Janeiro. Word of the discovery of gold filtered back slowly to the coast and to Lisbon. By 1700 the western world's first great gold rush had begun. Thousands of colonists and slaves poured into the rugged mountains north of Rio de Janeiro. The rush eventually spread on a smaller scale to the west, to present-day Goiás and Mato Grosso. It received new stimulus in the 1720s with the discovery of diamonds in the region north of the gold fields. Gold and diamond production rose dramatically until 1760. Probably 80 percent of the gold circulating in 18th-century Europe came from Brazil. The discovery of gold revitalised Brazil's economy, which had been stagnating since the decline of the sugar plantations, although the increase in available cash also caused prices to rise in the colony. In Lisbon, the Portuguese monarchy grew rich from collecting its one-fifth share of the gold that was mined in Brazil. Sugar, gold, and diamonds established Brazil as the economic heartland of the battered and reduced Portuguese Empire.
For the first time, the Portuguese established effective colonisation in the interior. The area of Minas Gerais became the most populous in Brazil. The bandeirantes and prospectors had extended the reach of Portugal far into the interior, creating a Brazil of continental dimensions. The Treaty of Madrid signed by Spain and Portugal in 1750 moved the old Tordesillas line westward to reflect the lands effectively occupied by the two major colonial powers in South America. The present boundaries of Brazil roughly follow that line.
The flow of goods and people into the Southeast also drained an already weak north-eastern plantation economy. In 1763 the king moved the colonial capital from Salvador to the booming city of Rio de Janeiro, which served as the main entry and exit point for colonists, slaves, and goods to and from Minas Gerais. The result of the gold rush in Brazil is evident in the dozens of beautiful baroque churches and hundreds of statues and paintings, principally in Minas Gerais.
In Portugal the wealth from Brazil made the monarchy very powerful. The dictatorial Marquis of Pombal, the chief minister of King Joseph Emanuel of Portugal, used this power to modernise the imperial system. In 1755 he abolished slavery in Portugal and prohibited the enslavement of Native Americans by declaring them free citizens of Brazil. Pombal wanted to outlaw African slavery in Brazil as well, but he realised that slavery formed a central part of Brazil's plantation-based economy. Recognising the importance of Brazil to the economic well-being of Portugal, Pombal tried to improve the efficiency of the Brazilian economy and administration and to lessen tensions between colonists and their Portuguese rulers. He involved Brazilian-born individuals in the colonial government, promoted new crops, and expelled the Jesuits, who had opposed his economic programs.

D. INDEPENDENCE
In 1789 elites in the captaincy of Minas Gerais revolted, protesting the reassertion of imperial control and the imposition of new taxes. An early sign of Brazilian nationalism, the Minas Conspiracy involved prominent figures as well as military officers. The revolt failed and royal courts sentenced most of the conspirators to prison or exile. The only nonaristocratic member of the conspiracy, a military officer by the name of Joaquim José da Silva Xavier, became the scapegoat. Best known by his nickname, Tiradentes (Toothpuller)—one of his many professions was dentistry—he was hanged in 1793 and became a martyr for the cause of Brazilian independence.
The connection between Portugal and Brazil was severed when Napoleon I and his armies invaded Portugal and Spain in 1807 and 1808. Napoleon, who had become emperor of France following the French Revolution (1789-1799), deposed and imprisoned the Spanish king Ferdinand VII in 1808. This left the Spanish American colonies isolated from royal control and set off a chain reaction that led to a series of long and bloody wars for independence. Brazil avoided a similar fate when the monarchy fled Lisbon shortly before French troops entered the city in 1807. With the help of their British allies, who were fighting Napoleon's forces, the royal family and 10,000 Portuguese followers made an unprecedented voyage across the Atlantic to Brazil, transferring the center of the empire to Rio de Janeiro. For the first and last time in Western history, a European monarch would rule his empire from the colonies.
Portugal's prince regent, the future King John VI, arrived in Brazil in early 1808 and for the next 13 years ruled Portugal's Asian, African, and American colonies from Rio de Janeiro. In 1815 John VI elevated Brazil to the status of a kingdom, placing it on an equal footing with Portugal. The presence of the monarchy and court in Rio brought Brazilian and Portuguese elites together and paved the way for a gradual transition to independence.
By 1815 Napoleon had been defeated in Europe, opening the way for the monarchy to return to Lisbon. John VI, however, decided to remain in Brazil, but in 1820 the Portuguese army headed a revolution designed to bring about a constitutional government. The revolutionaries agreed that John VI would serve as constitutional monarch of the empire, but only on the condition that he return to Portugal. Threatened with the loss of his crown, John reluctantly left for Portugal in 1821. His 23-year-old son Pedro remained in the colony as prince regent of Brazil.
Pedro and his advisers realised that revolutions in other Latin American countries were encouraging a movement for national independence in Brazil. A new and aggressive Cortes (parliament) in Portugal contributed to the demand for independence through a series of inept actions that offended many influential Brazilians. Portuguese members of the Cortes showed open hostility toward the Brazilian representatives, whom they regarded as unsophisticated residents of a backward province. The Cortes further alienated Brazilians by attempting to restore Brazil to colonial status. Rather than trying to resist the growing momentum for independence, Pedro and his advisers decided to take control of this movement. On September 7, 1822, after receiving orders from the Portuguese Cortes curtailing his authority in Brazil, Pedro declared Brazil's independence. Thus Brazil became one of the few Latin American colonies to make a peaceful transition to independence.
Pedro became Brazil's first emperor as Pedro I. His greatest challenge was to keep this new nation of continental dimensions from fragmenting into several countries, as had happened in Spanish America. He hired Lord Thomas Cochrane, an admiral who had been thrown out of the British navy, to enforce his authority in Brazil. Cochrane defeated the small Portuguese fleet and crushed separatist revolts in the major regional centers along the coast. With a small, hired navy and very few battles, Brazil retained its unity after gaining its independence. Portugal recognised Brazil's independence in 1825.
Despite his role in leading Brazil to independence, Pedro soon lost much of his support. He had been a resident of Brazil since the age of ten, but he was still Portuguese. Although Pedro abdicated the Portuguese throne, which he inherited in 1826, many Brazilians remained suspicious of his continued involvement in the affairs of his native Portugal. Members of the Brazilian elite were dissatisfied with Pedro for a number of reasons. Many of them opposed the new constitution written under his supervision and enacted in 1824. They were also displeased when he overrode the decision of the newly created Brazilian parliament and surrounded himself with Portuguese-born cabinet ministers. In the 1820s Pedro chose to renew a longstanding struggle with Argentina over the southern border of Brazil. The struggle erupted into the Cisplatine War (1825-1828). The war was unpopular with many Brazilians, especially after Brazil suffered a major military defeat at the hands of the Argentines in 1827. Faced with widespread opposition to his rule, Pedro abdicated his Brazilian throne in 1831 and returned to Portugal.

E. PEDRO II AND THE BRAZILIAN EMPIRE
Like his father, Pedro I left behind his eldest son, the future Pedro II, to take his place in Brazil. Barely four years old when his father and family returned to Portugal in 1831, the young Pedro grew up a virtual orphan and received an extraordinary education. Carefully chosen tutors taught the future emperor Latin, Greek, French, German, Spanish, and English and gave him a broad education in the arts and sciences.
While the young emperor-to-be grew up, a council of regents appointed by Parliament ruled the country. For the first time, Brazilians governed Brazil. As in most of 19th-century Latin America, two political parties contended for power. Conservatives looked back to Portuguese values and traditions for their inspiration. They sought to maintain a strong centralized monarchy, a slave economy, and the influence of the Catholic Church. Liberals sought to mold their country in the image of England, France, and the United States. They wanted to diminish the influence of the church, restrain centralisation and monarchy, and move toward a free labour economy. These were the ideals. When in power, each faction tended to be practical, sometimes implementing programs fought for by their opponents.
Throughout the 1830s the absence of a strong executive, disputes between liberals and conservatives, and powerful regional revolts threatened to shatter the fragile unity of the new nation. The constitution did not allow for the coronation of young Pedro until his 18th birthday, in December 1844. However, several factors combined to result in his coronation in 1840. Pedro was exceptionally mature, and both parties hoped that a monarch would provide the stability to prevent rebellions. In addition, both parties hoped that they might dominate the teenage emperor. In 1840 the Parliament offered the 13-year-old Pedro the crown. He accepted, beginning an era known as the Second Reign that lasted from 1840 to 1889.

1. A CHANGING ECONOMY
The 1840s also mark the emergence of coffee cultivation, which became the engine of economic growth that transformed Brazil during the next century. Like sugar, coffee was not native to the Americas, but had been transported there from its place of origin in Africa. Cultivation spread through the fertile valleys near Rio de Janeiro in the 1820s and 1830s. During the next century, coffee cultivation also spread rapidly in the area north and west of Rio, in southern Minas Gerais and, most prominently, in the province of São Paulo. The rapid expansion of coffee fields quickly made Brazil the world's leading exporter, a position it continues to hold today. Revenue generated by coffee drove the Brazilian economy until the Great Depression of the 1930s caused the collapse of national economies around the world. Coffee established south-eastern Brazil—principally the states of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, and São Paulo—as the economic and political core of the nation. In 1839 the discovery of vulcanisation—a processes that stabilises products manufactured from rubber—caused rapid financial growth in the frontier towns of the Brazilian forests, where rubber was harvested from the sap of trees native to the area. Brazil produced the vast majority of the world's rubber until early in the 1900s, when the British used smuggled seeds to establish more efficient plantations in East Asia.

2. SLAVERY
The coffee economy remained the backbone of the Brazilian economy long after rubber production collapsed, and it ran on slave labour. Brazil had imported half a million slaves in the 17th century to work on the sugar plantations of the Northeast. In the 18th century the gold fields of Minas Gerais had absorbed another 1.5 million Africans. In the first half of the 19th century alone, Brazil imported another 1.5 million slaves to fill the demand for labour on the coffee plantations of the Southeast. As the abolitionist movement gained strength in England and the United States in the 19th century, British pressure forced Brazil to halt its 300-year-old Atlantic slave trade in 1850.
The 3 to 4 million Africans who entered Brazil as slaves up until 1850 fundamentally shaped the composition of Brazilian society. In 1800 Brazil had the largest slave population in the world (half of its population of 3 million), and this forced migration created a truly African American culture in Brazil. African music, religions, foods, and language patterns blended with the culture of the Portuguese and the Native Americans to produce a cultural mosaic that was a mixture of African, European, and Native American influences. European colonists adopted Native American customs and borrowed words from the indigenous languages, while African slaves blended their own religious rituals with those of Christianity to form such new Afro-Brazilian religions as Umbanda, Macumba, and Candomblé.
Although the slave trade was abolished in 1850, slavery remained legal in Brazil. Slavery had been central to the fabric of life in Brazil for so long that dismantling slavery took much longer than in any other society in the Americas. The slave system began to disintegrate in the 1880s with the rise of a vocal abolitionist movement, largely in the cities, and the growing tendency for slaves to flee from their masters. Legislation by conservatives attempted to stretch the process over decades by gradually freeing the children of slaves beginning in 1871 and by emancipating elderly slaves after 1885. By 1888 unrest on plantations, and the refusal of the army to step in and halt the flight of slaves from their masters, brought the system to the brink of chaos. Ruling in place of her father, who was in Europe for medical treatment, Princess Isabel decreed the end of slavery in the “Golden Law” of May 13, 1888. Rather than face the anarchy and upheaval of massive slave unrest and flight, slaveowners grudgingly accepted abolition.
With the supply of new slave labour cut off after 1850 and the slave system in a state of disintegration, coffee planters turned to European immigration to meet their labour needs. Some 2.7 million immigrants—mainly from Italy, Spain, and Portugal—arrived in south-eastern and southern Brazil between 1887 and 1914. These immigrants gradually replaced slaves as the labour force in the coffee fields. They turned southern Brazil into an area with a more urban and European culture, strikingly different from the older mining and plantation regions of Minas Gerais and the Northeast, where a more relaxed, rural atmosphere prevailed and where African cultural influences remained strong among the Afro-Brazilian population.

3. END OF THE EMPIRE
In stark contrast to the upheaval and instability of some Latin American countries, Brazil's government was stable during the middle part of the 19th century. The Liberal and Conservative parties shared power, with the emperor acting as a moderating power between the two. The emperor called for new elections when it appeared that the ruling party faced a political crisis; invariably the opposition party would win the new elections.
There were elements of Brazilian society that did not support this power-sharing arrangement, however. In the 1870s and 1880s a republican movement emerged that called for the end of the monarchy and the creation of a republic modelled after the United States. Republicanism was especially strong among members of the army.
Over the last century, the military has played a central role in Brazilian society and politics, but this was not the case in the early years of independence. Brazil avoided most of the bloodshed and huge military build-up that plagued the early years of the Spanish American nations. The Brazilian army remained relatively small and did not play a significant role in the nation's affairs until the War of the Triple Alliance (1864-1870). For complex reasons, Brazil joined Argentina and Uruguay in this long and costly war against Paraguay in the 1860s. Despite the enormous disparity in resources, Paraguay tenaciously resisted the invading armies for years, losing the majority of its adult male population and large chunks of territory. Brazil's inability to defeat tiny Paraguay highlighted the weaknesses of the Brazilian military. Disgruntled officers began to envision a future without the monarchy.
By 1889 abolition, republicanism, and dissatisfaction in the armed forces had all eroded Pedro's traditional support from landowners, the clergy, and the military. A small group of conspirators with key support from high-level army officers initiated a coup d'etat on November 15, 1889. The ailing, 62-year-old Pedro found himself with little support and, like his father, chose exile over resistance. The day after the coup the royal family sailed to exile in Portugal and France.

F. THE FIRST REPUBLIC
Brazil's first republic was established in 1889. A Constituent Assembly convened to draw up a new constitution and swiftly decreed the separation of church and state as well as other republican reforms. In June 1890 it completed the drafting of a constitution, which was adopted in February 1891. Similar to the Constitution of the United States, Brazil's constitution eliminated the monarchy and established a federal republic, officially called the United States of Brazil. It replaced a parliament of senators appointed for life with an elected congress consisting of a house and senate. It also provided for an independent judiciary, and an executive branch headed by an elected president. The balance of power shifted significantly from a strong, centralized federalist system to a federalist system that granted substantial powers to the states.
Initially the military dominated the new government under the leadership of General Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca, a conservative general who had joined the revolt at the last minute. The assembly elected Deodoro president of a provisional government and chose a more decidedly republican general, Floriano Peixoto, as his vice president. An inflexible military leader, Deodoro proved incapable of working with the new congress, which took office in late 1890. They fought angrily over financial policy and over the extent of federal influence in the Brazilian states. Unwilling to deal with opposition, Deodoro dissolved Congress several months after it was elected and attempted to rule by decree. Faced with the possibility of civil war, he resigned the presidency in 1891. The tough Floriano assumed control and guided the republic through difficult times. He suppressed rebellions in the state of Rio Grande do Sul and in Rio de Janerio. Floriano supervised the republic's first elections in 1894 and handed power over to a civilian president, Prudente de Morais Barros, who had served as the first republican governor of São Paulo state.
With the election of Prudente, a politician from one of the leading coffee-producing states, the powerful coffee interests again dominated national politics. Under the constitution, voting was restricted to literate adult males. Because of a high illiteracy rate, this provision severely restricted the number of voters. Prior to 1930 no more than 4 percent of the total population voted in presidential contests. Landowners maintained a monopoly on power through political machines—tightly controlled political organisations that they set up in each of Brazil's states. These machines controlled enough votes to guarantee that landowners dominated local and national politics. Governors in the more populous states used their political machines to ensure that the presidency of Brazil went to an “official” candidate of their choosing. Over the four decades following Prudente's election, the coffee states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Minas Gerais shared political power. Nine of the 12 presidents from 1894 to 1930 came from these three states, which produced most of Brazil's wealth and accounted for most of its population.

G. SOCIAL CHANGE
Up until the early 20th century, Brazil's economy and social structure reflected a pattern established in the early days of colonial development. A small class of wealthy landowners controlled most of the country's wealth and power, while the majority of Brazilians—mostly slaves, their descendants, and the mulatto population—lived in relative poverty as agricultural workers. This situation began to change gradually toward the end of the 19th century when large numbers of immigrants arrived in Brazil. After the slave trade was abolished in 1850, the coffee planters could not find enough workers and the government began actively recruiting Europeans to immigrate to Brazil. In the last decade of the 19th century about 100,000 European immigrants arrived each year. The numbers increased during the early years of the 20th century, reaching a peak of about 600,000 for the period from 1911 to 1915. Many of these immigrants settled in the cities and urban centers.
Although Brazil's economy continued to be based on agricultural production, industry had begun to develop by the 1920s, especially around the cities of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. Industrialisation was accompanied by the growth of a small working class and middle class. Both groups found themselves excluded from the power structure developed by landowners to dominate rural workers. The immigrants, particularly Italians who made up about a third of the immigrant population, introduced new political ideologies from Europe, where workers and middle-class citizens were becoming increasingly active in politics. Many of these workers were frustrated with their lack of access to Brazil's political system. As their numbers grew, their demands for a place in the nation's political system also increased. Socialists and anarchists organised unions and strikes, but they encountered intense repression from the government.

H. THE REVOLUTION OF 1930
A more powerful challenge to the regime came from disgruntled young military officers. Many of these officers supported social reform, but they were also concerned about their professional status. They believed that the civilian government had neglected the army, which struggled with poor equipment, outdated training, and slim prospects for promotion of officers. On July 5, 1922, a group of young officers known as tenentes (lieutenants) staged a revolt in Rio de Janeiro against the government. The revolt was unsuccessful, but two years later a more serious uprising by tenentes in São Paulo shook the foundations of the regime for several weeks before government forces suppressed it. By the late 1920s the challenges of army officers, middle-class groups, and urban workers threatened the stability of the regime.
A world-wide economic crisis and a serious split within the land-owning elites over the presidential succession finally brought down the government. In 1929 economies throughout the world collapsed as the Great Depression began. In Brazil the depression caused a dramatic decline in coffee exports and a corresponding increase in the nation's foreign debts. President Washington Luís refused to change his economic policy in order to deal with the crisis, and he did little to improve economic conditions. Amid growing public discontent about the economy, the political elite split over the 1930 presidential election. The official government candidate, Júlio Prestes, was supported by the political machines in the larger states. He was opposed by Getúlio Vargas, governor of Rio Grande do Sul, who had organised a coalition of smaller states, opposition parties, and discontented elements in the military and in urban centers. The March election went smoothly for the government, with Prestes winning easily, but in October, before the new government was inaugurated, a revolt erupted following the assassination of Vargas's running mate, João Pêssoa. After a month of fighting, President Luís stepped down, and rebel troops marched into Rio de Janeiro. The Revolution of 1930 had triumphed.

I. GETÚLIO VARGAS AND THE NEW BRAZIL
Getúlio Vargas played a central role in the 1930 revolt, and he emerged as the most important political figure in 20th-century Brazil. Vargas was the son of an elite ranching family near the Argentine border. In less than a decade, from 1922 to 1930, he rose from federal deputy to governor of his home state of Rio Grande do Sul, and then to presidential candidate and leader of the revolutionary coalition. From 1930 to 1934 he ruled Brazil as the head of a provisional revolutionary government. The Constituent Assembly elected him president in 1934. In 1937, as elections approached, Vargas led a coup with the help of the army, and for the next eight years he ruled the nation as a dictator. He eliminated Congress, ruled by decree, and established federal control over Brazil's states by replacing almost all the governors with his own appointees. With the state political machines neutralised, Vargas ruled without the support of the land-owning elite. He maintained power with the backing of the military, the urban working and middle classes, and politicians in smaller states, who had been excluded from power under the republic.

1. ESTADO NOVO
During this period Vargas turned Brazil into an Estado Novo (New State). The Estado Novo was based on corporatism, which advocates close economic collaboration between employers and workers under the centralized direction of the government. Vargas appointed government planners to organise industrialisation programs and foreign trade policies, and he placed labour unions under the direct control of the government.
To satisfy his urban supporters, Vargas worked to create new Brazilian industries in the 1930s and 1940s. The most important new industry was iron and steel, which received a major boost in 1941 when construction began on the first integrated iron and steel mill at Volta Redonda, in Rio de Janeiro state. Vargas also established policies to protect domestic production from competition from foreign imports. These projectionist policies pleased an emerging new class of entrepreneurs and industrialists and created more jobs for blue-collar and white-collar workers. Vargas initiated a social welfare revolution as well. Much like the New Deal policies of U.S. president Franklin Roosevelt, Vargas's legislation provided workers with basic social welfare protections: minimum wage, maximum working hours, pensions, unemployment compensation, health and safety regulations, and unionisation.

2. WORLD WAR II
During World War II (1939-1945) Brazil fought with the Allies. The Vargas regime, aided by the United States, embarked on a vast program of industrial expansion, emphasising increased production of rubber and other vital war materials. Naval bases and airfields, constructed at strategic coastal points, became important centers of Allied antisubmarine warfare. The Brazilian navy eventually assumed all patrol activities in the South Atlantic Ocean. In 1944 and 1945 a Brazilian expeditionary force participated in the Allied campaign in Italy. Brazil was the only Latin American country to contribute troops to the war effort.
In the early 1940s, Brazilians were fighting a war against dictators in Europe while living under a dictatorship at home. More and more Brazilians began demanding a return to democratic elections, especially after Vargas postponed the elections he had scheduled for 1943. Vargas responded to these demands by promising presidential elections for 1945 in which he would be ineligible to run for the presidency. Vargas realised that he would eventually have to build a base of support among voters if he hoped to remain active in Brazilian politics. He began to shift his policy to the left in order to establish solid support among urban workers, poor rural labourers, and leftists. He moved toward economic nationalism, challenging the economic and business interests of Britain, the United States, and other foreign powers. He also created social legislation to protect workers. These new laws established pensions and social security benefits, and set a minimum wage and maximum work hours.
Many Brazilians feared Vargas might stage another coup before the elections, as he had done in 1937. To prevent this from happening, members of the army—many of whom were alarmed at his turn to the left—staged a coup of their own in October 1945 and forced Vargas to resign. Vargas quietly left for his ranch in southern Brazil, and the electoral campaign proceeded under a caretaker government.

J. THE AGE OF MASS POLITICS
The fall of Vargas ushered in a new era of mass politics in Brazil. A new constitution was approved in 1946 that dismantled the highly centralized government organisation of the Estado Novo, returned a great deal of power to the individual states, and provided for regular elections. With the return of elections, politicians had to campaign for the votes of the people through such modern methods as political rallies, radio broadcasts, and newspapers. Although political machines returned to power in many areas, particularly in the rural regions, a style of politics known as populism emerged. Populist politicians challenged the traditional power of the coffee-growing landowners by forging a political following among the masses, especially among the growing number of urban workers and sectors of the middle class. Vargas had used support from these groups to maintain power as dictator. Now elected politicians competed to win the votes of workers and middle-class Brazilians.
Another new feature on the political landscape was the formation of truly national political parties. Three major parties took shape in the 1940s. The National Democratic Union (UDN) attracted the more conservative elements in national politics, while the Social Democratic Party (PSD) appealed to more moderate and liberal voters. Labour leaders and their political allies formed the Brazilian Workers Party (PTB) to represent the interests of the Brazilian working class. The Brazilian Communist Party (PCB), which was founded in 1922 and had survived severe repression for more than two decades, competed with the Brazilian Workers Party for the support of the urban working class.
In the elections of 1945, the Social Democratic Party candidate, Eureka Dutra, triumphed with 55 percent of the vote. Dutra was a former minister of war and one of the most influential officers in the Brazilian military when he became a presidential candidate. In January 1946 he began a five-year presidential term. A hesitant and cautious president, Dutra did not make any major changes in the political system. When he withdrew government support for industrialisation, Brazil's economy again became heavily dependent on coffee exports.

1. VARGAS'S SECOND PRESIDENCY
Meanwhile, Vargas won election to the Senate and began planning his return to power. With the support of the Brazilian Workers Party, Vargas defeated the candidates of the Social Democratic Party and National Democratic Union in 1950. Five years after a military coup ended his dictatorship, Getúlio Vargas returned to the presidency with an electoral victory.
Despite his electoral victory, opposition parties, which controlled the Senate and House, fought Vargas at every turn. Vargas saw his election as a mandate to complete the unfinished work begun during his dictatorship. The state role in economic and social development was further expanded. Vargas created federally financed banks, corporations, and agencies, including the national bank of social and economic development (BNDES), the Brazilian petroleum corporation (Petrobrás), and the Brazilian electric corporation (Eletrobrás). At the same time, Vargas turned to the support of urban workers as a base for his political power. Business interests, multinational corporations, and foreign governments viewed Vargas's alliance with the lower classes with suspicion and came together to oppose him. Opponents of Vargas controlled almost all the major newspapers, magazines, and radio stations, and they attacked the president constantly.
By late 1954 the country had come to a political impasse, with Vargas and his opposition in a deadlock. A dramatic attempt to assassinate one of Vargas's bitter enemies broke the deadlock after investigations tied Vargas's personal bodyguard to the attempt. The army high command gave Vargas an ultimatum: resign or be overthrown. Facing the end of a long and brilliant political career, Vargas chose his most dramatic manoeuvre as his last: On the morning of August 24, 1954, he committed suicide in his bedroom at the presidential palace.

2. ECONOMIC EXPANSION
Vice President João Café Filho completed the remaining 17 months of Vargas's term. In the 1955 presidential elections, the Social Democratic Party and the Brazilian Workers Party formed a coalition. This coalition elected the governor of Minas Gerais, Juscelino Kubitschek as president with João Goulart, Vargas's controversial labour minister, as vice president. Kubitschek campaigned on the slogan “fifty years in five,” promising to achieve fifty years of progress during his five-year term. Arguably, he succeeded. During the late 1950s the Brazilian economy surged forward as heavy industries—iron, steel, and automobiles—and basic infrastructure—roads, communications, and construction—expanded. The Kubitschek government helped finance many of these modernization projects by printing currency that had no financial backing. The government printed enough unsupported currency to accelerate the cycle of inflation, which eventually led to major economic problems for Brazil.
Kubitschek's most vivid and enduring legacy is Brasília, a new capital city built on the plains of central Brazil. Many Brazilians thought that a new capital in the interior of Brazil would stimulate development in the region. Although the idea of moving the capital into the interior dated from the 18th century, it was Kubitschek who convinced the legislature to accept the idea and to fund it. Between 1956 and 1960, Kubitschek personally supervised the construction of this modern, futuristic city, located 800 miles north of Rio de Janeiro. Inaugurated in April 1960, Brasília now has more than 1 million inhabitants.

3. DESCENT INTO CHAOS
By the 1960 presidential election, a new figure had emerged on the national political scene. Jânio Quadros, the governor of São Paulo, was the National Democratic Union candidate for the presidency. Quadros vowed to sweep government clean of corruption and even brandished a broom as his symbol while campaigning. He won the presidential election. However, because the presidential and vice presidential candidates were elected separately in Brazil, the Brazilian Workers Party candidate, João Goulart, was elected vice president.
Just seven months after his inauguration in January 1961, Jânio Quadros suddenly and unexpectedly resigned the presidency. No one, including Quadros, has ever offered a satisfactory explanation for the resignation. Whatever the reasons behind Quadros's resignation, it provoked a crisis. The constitution called for Vice President João Goulart to succeed Quadros, but powerful figures in the military high command quickly declared him unacceptable. Many Brazilians saw Goulart as a Communist or Communist sympathiser, whose political ideas were too far to the left of center. The Congress, and many political leaders, rejected the military's position and called for respect for the constitutional process.
For nearly two weeks, the military and Congress negotiated a solution to the impasse. Goulart was sworn in, but his presidential powers were curtailed. New legislation created a prime minister, who would be responsible to the legislature and who would share many of the political powers held by the president. This legislation was reversed in 1962, when Goulart held a national referendum in which voters restored the presidential system of government.
The military's hatred of Goulart must be seen in the context of the Cold War, an intense economic and diplomatic struggle between the United States and its allies and the group of nations led by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). By the 1960s many Brazilian military officers had come to see Brazil as a frontline nation in the Cold War struggle between Communism and capitalism. This vision was fostered by Brazil's alliance with the United States and by ideas circulated in courses and specialised schools for the officer corps. Many officers feared a revolution in Brazil, and they viewed Goulart, with his support for leftist causes, as the leader of Communist forces in Brazil.
Goulart was also confronted with problems that sprang from the gradual disintegration of the economy. Inflation continued to increase, and the government faced large debt payments on foreign loans taken out to finance economic development during the Kubitschek administration. Goulart's economic advisers devised a plan to stabilise the economy by controlling wages and reducing government spending. Goulart followed this policy for several months, but then abandoned it. He feared that the imposition of wage controls would cost him the support of workers, who were his strongest political supporters, and that concessions to foreign bankers would alienate Brazilian nationalists. By early 1964 inflation approached 100 percent a year, foreign loans came to a halt, and the economy neared collapse.
Following the advice of his most radical advisers, Goulart attempted to strengthen his support among the masses. In the first months of 1964 he staged huge rallies in several of Brazil's major cities. He also signed decrees setting low-rent controls, nationalising petroleum refineries, seizing unused lands, and limiting profits that could be taken out of Brazil by foreign investors. In a final, desperate move to check the power of his enemies in the military high command, Goulart made a televised speech to a group of sergeants. He told them to disobey their superiors if they believed their orders were not in the best interest of the nation. Conspirators in the military had been contemplating the overthrow of Goulart for months; on March 31, after Goulart's speech to the sergeants, the army took control of the government. Goulart fled the country, never to return.

K. MILITARY RULE

1. MODERATE LEADERSHIP
The military intervened with two primary objectives: to eradicate the left and to rebuild the collapsing economy. Military leaders split between political hard-liners and moderates over how to achieve these goals. Led by General Humberto Castello Branco, who was named president, the moderates dominated the early years of the regime. Rather than shutting down civilian politics completely, the military attempted to purge the system of “undesirable” elements. They arrested and imprisoned people they perceived as opponents of the regime. Many fled the country. The military dismissed thousands of civil servants, military personnel, and politicians from their jobs and prohibited suspected political opponents from voting or holding office.
The military hoped that these actions would be enough to silence their opponents. This was not the case. By 1968 growing political opposition—even from former supporters of the military government—increasingly called for a return to civilian rule. Even the Supreme Court and the Congress, whose membership had been approved by the military leaders, began to exhibit signs of independence. The Supreme Court ordered the release of three students who had been detained by the government, and the Congress refused to allow the trial of one of its members who had criticised the military. University students in Brazil mounted huge demonstrations against the generals in 1967 and 1968. In addition, a small guerrilla movement developed, based largely in the cities. Its members kidnapped U.S. ambassador Charles Burke Elbrick and demanded a ransom and the release of political prisoners held by Brazil's military government. Over the next four years guerrillas continued their campaign against the government by kidnapping foreign diplomats, bombing government buildings, and robbing banks to finance their activities.

2. HARD-LINERS TAKE CONTROL
The growing opposition provoked a sharp response from the hard-liners, who launched a coup within the regime and took the upper hand in the military high command. The coup was triggered when General Artur Costa e Silva, who had been voted president by the legislature in 1967, suffered a series of incapacitating strokes in 1968. The three military cabinet ministers (army, navy, and air force) then took charge.
The generals saw chaos and Communists all around them, and they cracked down, initiating intense repression to crush the opposition. In December 1968 they shut down Congress. The military leaders issued a new constitution that concentrated power in the executive and they named a new president, General Emílio Médici. Between 1968 and 1974, Médici and the hard-liners unleashed the systematic and widespread use of torture and repression to silence their opponents. Thousands suffered at the hands of the torturers, and hundreds died. The regime took control of labour unions and silenced anyone who criticised the regime. Within a few years the guerrillas had been entirely wiped out. The government eventually shut down the national student union, and universities purged their faculties of those suspected of supporting leftist ideas. Large numbers of prominent Brazilian academics and artists went into exile in other Latin American countries, the United States, and Europe.
The years of repression coincided with the years of the so-called Brazilian miracle when the economy grew faster than any other economy in the world. During this period manufactured goods replaced coffee as Brazil's leading export. The staunchly nationalistic military wanted to make Brazil a world power and understood that a strong industrial economy held the key to their goal. They welcomed foreign investment, attracting billions of dollars. The regime channelled that investment into sectors of the economy considered critical for development. Among other things, these included the Trans-Amazon Highway, a large hydroelectric dam at Itaipú in south-eastern Brazil, and a nuclear power program.

L. RETURN TO CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT

1. ABE RTURA
By 1973 the economy was expanding at an extraordinary pace, and the military appeared to have control over the political system. Moderate forces within the military brought General Ernesto Geisel to the presidency in 1974. The son of German immigrants, Geisel initiated abertura (opening), a series of reforms that gradually allowed limited political organisation and elections. The legal opposition party, the Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB), began to win important elections.
Geisel handpicked his successor, General João Baptista Figueiredo. Figueiredo's presidency began in 1979 by furthering abertura with the declaration of a general amnesty for all political crimes since 1964. The government also allowed exiles to return home. Figueiredo released the last few political prisoners, and official censors finally left the pressrooms and television studios. The Figueiredo government also issued guidelines for the formation of new political parties and for open election of governors in 1982.

2. ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
Abertura was complicated by growing economic problems with roots going back to the enormous industrial and economic expansion of the late 1960s and early 1970s. This expansion had made the country heavily dependent on petroleum, much of which was imported. When Arab nations began limiting oil exports in October 1973, the price of oil skyrocketed, seriously crippling the Brazilian economy. The regime had already borrowed heavily to finance the so-called Brazilian miracle. To keep the economy going, and to avoid a recession, the Brazilian government borrowed billions from international agencies and banks to finance continued growth. The Brazilian foreign debt went from about $25 billion in 1974 to more than $100 billion in the early 1980s—at that time the largest foreign debt in the world. Inflation continued its upward trend, reaching levels far higher than during the crisis of 1963 and 1964. In 1982 Brazil halted all payments on the principal of its huge foreign debt, and the economy entered a severe recession.

3. TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY
The battered economy severely discredited the military regime in the eyes of most Brazilians. Furthermore, few saw much need for a military regime, given that the threat of leftist revolution had long since been crushed. In 1984 millions of Brazilians took to the streets demanding immediate direct elections for president.
The government managed to fend off the calls for direct elections by instituting an electoral college, in which congressional delegates and state assembly members voted for the president. However, the massive public demonstrations helped split the government party. Many of the government's supporters in the electoral college defected and voted with the opposition, defeating the official government candidate for president in 1984. The electoral college instead chose Tancredo Neves, the governor of Minas Gerais, to become Brazil's first civilian president since 1964. They chose José Sarney as vice president. Sarney, a long time leader of the government party in the Senate, had played a key role in leading government supporters to join the opposition.
Neves, who was 74, fell desperately ill on the eve of his scheduled inauguration in March 1985. When Neves died in late April, before he could assume office, José Sarney was sworn in as president. Sarney immediately faced two momentous problems: the economic crisis and the need to continue the transition to a fully democratic regime by instituting a new constitution that would re-establish democratic institutions.
Inflation in 1985 approached 300 percent, the foreign debt continued to mount, and strikes broke out across the country as workers demanded higher wages. In a drastic effort to stabilise the economy, Sarney introduced the Cruzado Plan in February 1986. The plan froze prices and wages and it brought Sarney to the peak of his popularity when inflation ground to a standstill for a few months. Unfortunately, when the government unfroze prices and wages at the end of 1986, inflation exploded again. Interest payments on the foreign debt gobbled up nearly all of the country's huge trade surplus, draining the economy of badly needed capital. The government incurred large deficits in public spending, and foreign banks refused to extend new loans until the government implemented an economic austerity program.
The Congress elected in November 1986 drafted a new constitution that went into effect in October 1988. The constitution's provisions gave wider power to the legislature and decreased the influence of the executive branch, granted more tax revenues to the states and municipalities, and extended the vote to 16-year-olds. It eliminated the electoral college established by the military regime and allowed Brazilians to vote directly for president.

M. THE COLLOR ADMINISTRATION
The election of Fernando Collor de Mello in late 1989, and his inauguration in March 1990, marked the completion of the long and difficult process of abertura. Finally, Brazilians had the opportunity to elect their president directly through the ballot box rather than having one imposed by a small clique of generals. More than 80 million Brazilians voted in the presidential election, the vast majority for the first time. In his first two years in office Collor implemented an economic program that brought inflation down, but failed to contain it. More important, he began to drastically curtail the state's role in the Brazilian economy and to dismantle projectionist trade policies.
The great hopes millions of Brazilians had for the Collor presidency soon disappeared as the economic program failed to halt extremely high inflation rates, which reached a peak of more than 1,500 percent in 1991. A corruption scandal also badly damaged the government. In 1992 legislative investigations uncovered an influence peddling scheme that involved hundreds of millions of dollars, much of it going to Collor. In December 1992 the Congress impeached Collor and swore in his vice president, Itamar Franco, to serve out the last two years of Collor's term.

N. THE CARDOSO PRESIDENCY
President Franco paved the way for the election of his successor, Fernando Henrique Cardoso. One of Latin America's most prominent intellectual figures, Cardoso was trained as a political sociologist at the University of São Paulo in the late 1950s and early 1960s. A former member of the Communist Party, Cardoso spent part of the 1960s and 1970s in exile. During the late 1970s he entered politics, eventually becoming a senator from the state of São Paulo and an unsuccessful mayoral candidate for the city.
Franco chose Cardoso as his finance minister in early 1994 in yet another effort to combat runaway inflation and the debt crisis. Cardoso and a team of advisers put together the Real Plan. This plan created a new currency, the real, in 1994 and put into place a series of measures to reduce inflation without wage or price freezes. Inflation dropped from a rate of 45 to 50 percent per month in early 1994 to a rate of about 1 to 2 percent per month over the next two years, giving Brazilians their lowest inflation rates in decades.
The success of the plan made Cardoso a national hero and the leading contender for the presidency. Cardoso forged a coalition of his Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB), the conservative Liberal Front Party (PFL), and several other parties. The former Communist convinced the business community and conservatives that his views had evolved, and were close enough to theirs to gain their support. With nearly 55 percent of the total vote in the November 1994 elections, Cardoso scored the most impressive electoral victory in 40 years.
Inaugurated on January 1, 1995, President Cardoso forged a majority coalition in Congress that passed fundamental legislative reforms during his first two years in office. This legislation on federal expenditures dramatically reduced government involvement in the economy. The government privatised major state enterprises, broke up the government-controlled telecommunications monopoly, and eliminated restrictions limiting the amount of money foreign corporations could invest in Brazil. The government also reduced expenditures in a number of social security programs and eliminated job security among civil servants in an attempt to reduce government expenditures.

Cardoso also worked to reduce tensions between landowners and the homeless squatters, who occupied large unproductive estates in the countryside. With 1 percent of the population owning 45 percent of the land in 1995, Brazil had the most unequal land distribution pattern in Latin America. Conflicts over land use and ownership led to a number of violent confrontations in 1995 and 1996 in which more than 40 people were shot and killed by Brazilian police. In November 1995 Cardoso signed a presidential decree that took possession of just over 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres) of land from large, private estates and reallocated it to more than 3,600 poor families.
In January 1996 Cardoso signed a more controversial presidential decree that allowed non-native Americans to appeal land allocation decisions made by Brazil's Indian Affairs Bureau. Cardoso's decree allowed regional governments, private companies, and individuals to challenge indigenous land claims in certain areas of the country, primarily in the Amazon region of northern Brazil. The law was widely condemned by human rights, Native American, and religious organisations.

O. ECONOMIC CRISIS AND REELECTION
Largely because of Cardoso's popularity and his success in revitalising the economy, Brazil's legislature passed a constitutional amendment in 1997 allowing the president to run for a second term in office. Later in the year, however, Brazil's economy was shaken following a collapse in Asian stock markets. The resulting financial crisis affected stock markets in many developing economies. Reacting to the crisis, Brazil's government introduced an austerity program that reduced federal spending and temporarily restored foreign confidence in the economy. The economy received a second jolt in August of 1998 after the government of Russia defaulted on its foreign debts. Fearing that the economic crisis might spread through Latin America, investors began withdrawing their money from Brazil. Cardoso began negotiating an economic bailout with foreign lenders through the International Monetary Fund (IMF), an international agency designed to stabilise the world economy.
Even though the economy had taken a turn for the worse, Cardoso won election to a second four-year term in October 1998. The following month, the IMF and Brazil announced a $41.5-billion loan package to protect Brazil's economy. In return, Cardoso agreed to introduce legislation designed to cut back on government spending and to restructure Brazil's taxation and social security systems. In January 1999 the government devalued the national currency, the real, by 8 percent against the U.S. dollar. (Devaluation involves lowering the value of a nation's currency in relation to foreign currencies.) Financial experts hoped the devaluation would put the economy on a more secure footing by lowering the cost of Brazilian products in overseas markets, making exports more attractive and increasing the flow of cash into Brazil.
In June 1999 the government placed the military under direct civilian control. The separate army, navy, and air force ministries, which had been led by top military men, were combined into one Defence Ministry headed by a civilian cabinet minister appointed by the president.
The history section of this article was contributed by Marshall C. Eakin. The remainder of the article was contributed by John Philip Dickenson.

Bronnen:
Foto’s en afbeeldingen:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001
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Tekst:
 The Spectrum Electronic Publishing
 Encarta 2001

9. Besluit:

Brazilië is een erg groot Zuid-Amerikaans land met een erg gevarieerde fauna en flora. Het heeft een erg fascinerende cultuur met aspecten die terugkomen in bijna alle andere culturen in de wereld. Economisch gezien is het een van de meest geavanceerde en stabielste landen van Zuid-Amerika maar het kan toch nog beter als men meer zou evolueren van een landbouwmaatschappij naar een industriëlenmaatschappij.
Het land heeft ook een erg gevarieerde geschiedenis met vele hoogte en laagte punten, maar het is er wel steeds in geslaagd om zichzelf te herstellen en door te gaan.
Brazilië is volgens mij het meest fascinerende land van Zuid-Amerika. Dit komt door de grote variatie in alles wat met het land te maken heeft.